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Darlene Steward et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 272–279 273 2 Steward et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 of electric vehicles, grid electrical storage, and other uses could increase prices impacting electric vehicle and other markets. Closed-loop systems with recycling at the end-of-life provides a pathway to lower environmental impacts and a source of high value materials that can be used in producing new batteries. Currently, consumer electronics make up the bulk of spent LIB. Most of these batteries are landfilled or disposed in some other way (e.g., in a drawer) because environmental regulations concerning end-of-life batteries are not fully developed or implemented in many countries including the United States. Only a small number of spent batteries are currently sent to the existing recycling facilities [1]. However, as electric vehicles begin to reach their end-of-life, the volume of the spent LIB waste stream is expected to grow rapidly. With proactive regulations regarding collection and disposal of spent batteries and innovations in recycling technologies, end-of-life batteries could supply a significant fraction of the materials needed for manufacturing of new LIB. This paper briefly reviews the current economics and challenges in the supply chain of virgin materials for LIB manufacturing in Section 2. In Section 3, we address the efforts that have been undertaken in various countries to increase recycling of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) and section 4 discusses how management of ELVs could impact LIB recycling success. The “reverse supply chain” for spent LIB is discussed in Section 5. Recycling methods, world recycling capacity and benefits of recycling are discussed in section 6. Nomenclature BEV ELV EV HEV LCO LIB PHEV 2. Battery electric vehicle End-of-life vehicle Electric vehicle Hybrid electric vehicle Lithium-cobalt oxide Lithium-ion batteries Plug-in hybrid vehicle Challenges in the LIB Supply Chain LFP Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) NMC Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide (LiNiCoMnO2) LFP Lithium Manganese Phosphate NCA Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2) LMO Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4) LCO Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2) Consumer electronics are currently the largest LIB application. However, LIB have emerged as the battery of choice for electric vehicles because of their high energy and power density and long life [2]. Sales of electric vehicles are expected to increase rapidly in the next years. For example, the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is forecasted to be 56% in the period 2017 to 2020 and the CAGR for fully battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is expected to be 42% for the same period ([3,4] and NREL analysis 2018). The total global capacity for vehicle LIB manufacturing was more than 31 GWh in 2016 [3-5], and demand is expected to exceed 120 GWh by 2020. This rapid growth is projected to require more than 550,000 metric tons of the battery materials— lithium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and graphite—by 2020. LIB are also the leading battery technology used for grid- scale electricity storage; a critical component in integrating increasing amounts of variable renewable energy into the electricity supply. In the third quarter of 2017, deployment, in MW, of stationary energy storage (residential, non- residential, and utility) in the U.S. was up 46% over the previous year and lithium ion technologies continued to make up more than 94% of the installed MW [6]. Figure 1 below shows projections of LIB for different applications. This figure shows that transportation (i.e., electric vehicles and buses) are expected to dominate the LIB market in the coming years.PDF Image | Li-ion battery recycling challenges
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