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Darlene Steward et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 272–279 275 4 Steward et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 Figure 2. World mining industry production for materials used in LIB in 2017 (data source: USGS 2017 [7]) 4. End-of-Life Vehicle Management Effective collection of LIB from electric vehicles would begin with effective collection mechanisms for end-of-life vehicles (ELVs). ELVs have been recycled to recover valuable parts and materials for many years. Recycling of ELVs, mostly to recover useful metals, had reached 95% by mass in the EU by 2015 [9]. Currently in the U.S., nearly all cars are recycled and, in the recycling process approximately 86% of the vehicle is recovered or used for energy production [10]. Current waste reduction directives in the EU set aggressive goals for recycling of ELVs. Under the European Union End-of-Life Vehicle Directive†, vehicle manufacturers are responsible for collecting and recycling of ELVs. The Directive required that by 2015, only 5% (by weight) of an ELV could be sent to landfill. In 2016, between 8 and 9 million tons of ELVs were generated in the European Union, and between 80% and 100% of materials from collected vehicles were recovered or recycled‡ However, not all vehicles taken out of service are collected through regular channels that direct them to recycling/recovery processes and not all countries have reached the recycling goals set by the Directive. A 2007 study commissioned by the European Parliament found that compliance with the ELV collection and recycling directives was difficult for many member states [11]. Collection problems included export of second-hand cars to countries with less stringent disposal regulations, unlicensed operators that only remove economically valuable parts, and abandonment or “garaging” of ELVs by owners. Burdensome administrative requirements, and reluctance to charge vehicle manufacturers for costs associated with take-back programs also impacted compliance. Japan’s End-of-Life Vehicle Recycling Law [12] was promulgated in 2002 and entered into force January 1, 2005 [12] The law is similar to those in Europe except that car owners are required to pay a fee for recycling when † Directive, 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of life vehicles (EPC), 2000. (https://eur- lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02000L0053-20130611&qid=1405610569066&from=EN) ‡ http://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-new-boost-for-jobs-growth-and-investment/file-end-of-life-vehicles-batteries-and- electronic-waste (accessed 4/12/2018)PDF Image | Li-ion battery recycling challenges
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