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276 Darlene Steward et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 272–279 Steward et al.,/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 5 purchasing a vehicle so that responsibility for ELVs is shared between owners, ELV-collecting and recycling businesses and vehicle manufacturers. In the same timeframe, South Korea promulgated a law (South Korean RoHS/ELV/WEEE Act, 2007) addressing collection and recycling of vehicles§. China has had policies and regulations regarding ELVs in place since 2001 [13]. These policies have been updated and improved in subsequent years, but effective tracking of ELV collection and recycling is lacking and implementation of ELV recycling mechanisms has suffered from some of the same problems encountered in Europe and elsewhere. There are currently no federal laws in the United States implementing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for ELVs**. However, there are a number of voluntary consortiums (e.g., the ELV Solutions consortium††) addressing recycling and design for recycling. There are also state programs and laws addressing mercury switches and tires. Because the market for LIB has been dominated by consumer electronics, collection of spent LIB has so far been governed by waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) policies. Several studies have investigated the effectiveness of these programs; however, it is likely that policies and regulations affecting recycling of vehicle batteries will be similar to, and build upon, other vehicle related programs such as the ones discussed above rather than WEEE policies, which are designed for a much different disposal model. 5. The Reverse Supply Chain for LIB The economics of recycling ELV LIBs must account for all stages in the “reverse supply chain” of collecting ELVs, dismantling and recycling them to recover useful and valuable materials and energy including but not limited to LIB, and finally the economics of the battery recycling process itself. Gradin et al. [14] compared the recovery rates for copper, steel and aluminium and energy use (including energy recovery from incinerating some of the materials) for the two available ELV recycling methods; shredding and manual disassembly. They found that disassembly had both lower greenhouse gas emissions (primarily due to the energy recovered from incinerating energy-rich polymers) and lower metals depletion (due to better recovery of copper) than the shredding option. From a regulatory standpoint, only disassembly could meet the waste reduction goals under the EU ELV Directives. At least partial disassembly of the vehicles would be required for EVs to recycle the batteries and mitigate the safety hazard of shredding the batteries. Collection of ELVs would probably occur at dealerships or scrap yards where cars are first taken out of service. If disassembly was not co-located with the vehicle collection point, the vehicles would then be transported to a disassembly plant where they might be stored for a period of time before being disassembled. After the car is taken apart, the constituent materials would be transported for further processing at a recycling facility or energy recovery site. Cost components associated with each step include transport costs, energy for operation of the disassembly plant, labor and costs associated with the logistics of storing and handling of the vehicles. Optimization of networks of collectors, dismantlers and recyclers has been undertaken by a number of researchers [8, 10, 15] Golenbiewski et al. [15] investigated the optimal placement of vehicle dismantling facilities in Poland. They found that transportation costs made up 70% of the total cost of vehicle recycling, which includes collection and dismantling of the ELVs and processing of the remainder (shredding and incineration) to recover energy and materials. Recycling of LIB from vehicles would begin with a similar dismantling process to remove the battery system from the vehicle. The batteries would then be discharged to render them safe to handle, further disassembled, and then processed in one of the processes described in Section 5. Wegener et al. [16] examined the process for disassembly of the battery system for an Audi Q5 and VW Jetta hybrid car. They outlined 24 individual steps in the disassembly of the Audi Q5 battery system including removal of the battery management system, removal of coverings and casings, wiring, connectors and cables. All of the steps were done by hand with minimal tools (e.g., a screw driver). However, because of the complexity of the process and expected variations between the configurations of different cars, the authors suggested that there was minimal opportunity for automation. Therefore, the process is likely to remain time § http://www.step-initiative.org/south-korea-resource-recycling-of-electrical-and-electronic-equipment-and-vehicles-act-no-8405-2007.html (accessed 4/13/2018) ** https://archive.epa.gov/oswer/international/web/html/200811_elv_directive.html (accessed 4/13/2018) †† http://elvsolutions.org (accessed 4/13/2018)PDF Image | Li-ion battery recycling challenges
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