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On the other hand, cobalt was quickly identified as an element of appropriate concern. Estimates of cumulative world demand for batteries alone (ignoring other cobalt markets) through 2025 show that batteries could use about 10% of the reserves available (see Table 1 for estimates based on cathode demand forecasts by Christophe Pillot [5]). The impact of this large demand can already be seen in the price of cobalt, about $79,000/tonne as of this writing [6]. The rapid price rise, coupled with concerns about child la- bor in Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Table 1 Projected cumulative world battery material demand to 2025 (1000 tons). most cobalt is mined, has driven electric vehicle (EV) battery manufacturers to adjust cathode for- mulations to ones that rely less on cobalt and more on nickel. At current prices, cobalt accounts for 90% of the $55 worth of lithium, cobalt, and nickel in a kilogram of high-cobalt cathode (LCO) but only 30% of the $17 worth in a new lower-cobalt formulation (NMC811). Concerns about cobalt have resulted in an increased interest in recycling as a possible source of materials. 2 Element Lithium Cobalt Nickel Projected Demand If all NMC is If all NMC is high-Co USGS Reserves 16,000 7,100 74,000 low-Co (811) 230 230 790 910 580 340 (111) Note: Reserves from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) [7][8][9]. However, it can easily be shown that recy- cling of automotive Li-ion batteries to supply ma- terials is a long-term strategy. Batteries are ex- pected to last about 10 years for propulsion and possibly another 5–10 in second–life applica- tions, like utility load leveling. Thus, large num- bers of batteries will not be available for recy- cling until 10–20 years after mass-market pene- tration; meanwhile, demand is expected to con- tinue its rapid growth, requiring much more ma- terial than recycling could supply. Only after de- mand slows can recycling supply a significant fraction of material needs. Recycling, however, provides additional benefits, including moderat- ing virgin material prices, reducing costs and other impacts of disposal, and reducing reliance on imported materials. Life-cycle analysis of bat- tery production and recycling processes has demonstrated the efficacy of recycling through reduced energy use and emissions in EV battery production [10]. 3. Brief Li-Ion Battery Description The battery pack from the Chevrolet Bolt au- tomobile, shown in Fig. 1, is a very complex structure, and is composed of a large number of pouch cells grouped together into modules, which, in turn, are fitted into the large pack hous- ing. Each cell is connected to circuitry and the pack is controlled by an electronic battery man- agement system (BMS). The configuration, size, and shape of the cells, modules, and packs differ from manufacturer to manufacturer, and even from model to model within manufacturers. Alt- hough most original equipment manufacturers use pouch cells, Tesla uses small cylindrical cells, Fig. 1. Chevrolet Bolt battery pack.PDF Image | Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes
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