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The GeoVision analysis characterized three categories of geothermal resources: Geothermal Heat-Pump Resources: The ubiquitous presence of shallow soil, rock, and/ or aquifers—and, specifically, their thermal storage properties—presents a vast and important geothermal resource. The thermal storage capacity of the shallow earth enables its use as a heat-exchange medium for low-grade thermal energy. GHPs use this thermal storage to increase the efficiency and reduce the energy consumption of heating and cooling applications for residential and commercial buildings. Shallow-earth resources exist across all 50 states and can be used for GHPs wherever the ground can be cost-effectively accessed to depths below seasonal temperature variations.18 Hydrothermal Resources: Naturally occurring hydrothermal resources contain the basic elements of heat in the Earth, along with groundwater and rock characteristics (i.e., open fractures that allow fluid flow) sufficient for the recovery of heat energy, usually through produced hot water or steam. Hydrothermal resources can range in temperature from a few degrees above ambient conditions to temperatures greater than 375°C.19 Above this higher range, a new class of innovative subsurface and surface production technologies will likely be required to convert geothermal energy resources for beneficial use. Enhanced Geothermal Systems: Unconventional geothermal resources, often referred to as enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), contain heat similar to conventional hydrothermal resources but lack the necessary groundwater and/or rock characteristics to enable energy extraction without innovative subsurface engineering and transformation. Unconventional EGS resources can be found at any above-ambient temperature that supports energy conversion for a given end-use technology application. The resource has potential applications across the geothermal technology spectrum, although practical application will be limited by the costs of required engineering. The characteristics and geographic distribution of geothermal resources are summarized in the subsequent sections and discussed in greater detail in Renner 2006, Doughty et al. 2018, Augustine et al. 2019, Liu et al. 2019, and Young et al. 2019. In all cases, unless otherwise specified, the resource potential values indicated in this section represent technical potential in the United States—that is, the achievable energy generation given existing technology, system performance and environmental and land-use constraints (Lopez et al. 2012). These technical potential values were adopted as the resource potential starting points for the GeoVision analysis. Although Alaska and Hawaii offer immense geothermal potential (Text Box 2-1),20 data limitations prevented those states from being modeled explicitly in the GeoVision analysis. 18 On average, at soil depths greater than about 30 feet below the surface, ground temperatures are constant year round. Different system configurations enable GHPs to take advantage of thermal storage in the Earth at shallower or deeper levels in order to optimize the system costs and performance. 19 In thermodynamics, the “critical point” of a substance is the end point of a phase equilibrium curve separating a liquid and gaseous phase in terms defined by their pressure and temperature conditions. For pure water, the critical point occurs at 374°C and 220.64 bar (3,200 pounds per square inch absolute). Above the temperatures and pressures defined by the critical point, water exists as a supercritical fluid with unique properties characterized by high energy densities and low viscosities. Many natural systems contain water with salinities that move their critical points to temperatures of 400°C or beyond. Once supercritical geothermal conditions are encountered, innovative technologies will be required to develop those resources. 20 The actual deployable resource potentials made available to the electric and non-electric sector modeling scenarios reflect adjustments to the resource supply curves to account for the removal of resources already developed and deployed; Alaska and Hawaii resource potentials, which could not be modeled in the GeoVision analysis (Text Box 2-1); and additional removal of resource potentials on federally protected lands. The methodologies and resulting supply curves used for the GeoVision modeling are detailed in Appendix C and Augustine et al. 2019. 14 Chapter 2 | What is Geothermal Energy? Sunrise glow on condenser steam at a geothermal power plant in Brawley, California. Photo credit: Piyush Bakane Chapter 2PDF Image | What is Geothermal Energy
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