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Energies 2018, 11, 217 2 of 26 for the success of full electric (FEA) or hybrid electric aircraft (HEA). The Bauhaus Luftfahrt e.V. focuses on a broad spectrum of alternatives to conventional propulsion technologies and sources of energy for aircraft. In their investigation of regional [4] and short to long distance aircraft such as the CeLiner [5–7] propulsion technologies suitable for FEA and HEA concepts are discussed and electric air transport appears to offer a promising perspective [6]. Encouraged by a retrofit of an A320, block fuel can be significantly reduced (by 16%) considering a hybrid propulsion concept including a battery [8] Although these researchers differentiate between the power and the energy delivered by the electrical system, a propulsion operation strategy is missing. Deeper insights about the role of the embedded battery performance in the overall aircraft design (OAD) are not provided. Isikveren et al. [9] make first research efforts about hybrid electric propulsion strategies. Nevertheless, only the cruise mission segment is regarded and battery specific parameters such as power-to-energy ratios are not considered. Additionally, a comprehensive overview of implications on operating costs by introducing these new propulsion systems is not found. In [10], studies about the costs mainly focus on the battery technology only. A large spectrum of new propulsion concepts is developed by NASA in cooperation with Boeing. In the LEAPtech project, distributed propulsion, its aerodynamic effects [11] and larger aircraft with aft fuselage propulsors [12] are investigated. In their PEGASUS concept [13,14] a wingtip propeller architecture is applied for a regional aircraft, highlighting the propulsion system and different fixed battery energy settings. The PEGASUS concept shows that battery hybrid to conventional propulsion vehicles offer a limited economic competitiveness for low battery specific energy (<600 Wh/kg) and high electricity costs. However, only the battery energy performance is considered and not the correlating power. There is a lack of investigation regarding different battery technologies with high energy and/or power requirements. Researchers of the Deutsches Luft- und Raumfahrt Zentrum (DLR) are part of the Clean Sky II project, in which new propulsion architectures for regional and bigger aircraft are analyzed. First considerations about aerodynamic improvements are made. Parallel hybrid concepts with two gas turbines and electric driven wingtip propellers are most suitable for improvements with regard to fuel savings among the screened concepts [15]. The propulsion system is designed to recharge the battery in flight. Thus, the battery is only used for power peak shaving. Alternative operation strategies are not considered. The TU Delft [16] modified a regional aircraft with a hybrid battery electric propulsion system. Fuel weight reductions up to 30% are expected for hybrid electric aircrafts concepts. Nonetheless, a battery specific energy of at least 750 Wh/kg is required. The author does not go further to investigate the role of the power and energy output of a battery and its implications for future battery research. The VOLTAIR plane from Airbus is a feasibility study about a FEA that defines technological pre-conditions for the energy density of batteries and flight missions [17]. The study underlines the importance of battery development to fulfill the energy requirements for electric flights. A more detailed analysis of HEA concepts and the power density of batteries is missing. Most of the research does not provide a clear message for politicians and aircraft manufacturers about the profitability and environmental friendliness of HEA. The main identified research gap is the lack of investigation on the role of the two basic battery performance parameters, power and energy density and an operation strategy depending on a clear goal setting. The Flightpath 2050 targets a significant CO2 pollution reduction. The emission measurement is twofold. Airlines and aircraft manufacturers care about the emissions during flight, meaning tank-to-wheel- emissions. If the environmental impact of aviation is seen more holistic, the well-to-tank-emissions have to be added in the environmental analysis. Both perspectives are considered in the following. Research about technological specifications and market trends is very rare for 2050. Hence, the year 2035 is taken as research scope. In the airline industry cost reduction is a main focus for managements to stay competitive. Hence, in this research HEA configurations are tested regarding their CO2 emission savings and operational cost competiveness. Therefore, HEA with battery and gas turbine propulsion architectures are in scope.PDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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