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Energies 2018, 11, 217 4 of 26 The vertical tail is also designed for steering momentums in the OEI case. When the engines are controlled and differential thrust is used, smaller momentums have to be handled by the V-Tail and a smaller sizing is likely [22]. These advantages are expected by introducing new propulsion technology. Architectures with numerous gas turbines cause higher costs due to increased maintenance costs. It is assumed that electric propulsion leads to decreased maintenance efforts [23], so no severe cost penalty has to be applied for an architecture with more than two electric engines. 2.2. Scope of Propulsion Components In this section, the propulsion components used in the simulation of a HEA and their characteristic values are introduced. The gravimetric density, component weight respectively, is the most important parameter for choosing propulsion components [24,25]. Additional mass, which has to be carried in flight, costs more energy for the transportation, because an increased maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) requires a higher demand of thrust to move the aircraft. 2.2.1. Conventional Propulsion Components Conventional larger aircraft are powered by jet fuel. They are characterized by a very high energy density with a lower heating value of 11.9 kWh/kg [5]. The fuel mass is reduced with the mission time as the kerosene is burnt. The chemical energy is converted into mechanical energy. This process has a relatively low efficiency of about 40% [14], which even decreases for lower power ratings of the turbine [26]. A ducted or unducted fan is mounted on the main shaft of the gas turbine to provide thrust. The choice of the thrust technology depends on the cruise speed [27]. Unducted propellers have a higher efficiency than ducted fans for slower speeds. The chosen cruise speed for the regional reference aircraft is slower with Mach 0.44 compared to cruise speeds of short-haul jets with Mach > 0.76. Hence, unducted propellers are chosen for the reference aircraft. 2.2.2. Electric Propulsion Components The electric motor is a propulsion technology that draws electricity for operation. A power management and distribution (PMAD) system in form of inverters, converters and cables is needed to ensure safe operation of the motor controlling the voltage and current levels [28]. State-of-the-art electric motors are not often designed for applications with weight limitations and have gravimetric power densities between 2–10 kW/kg [5]. The weight of the PMAD is added. Latest research focuses on high temperature superconducting (HTS) materials that offer the best available power to weight ratios [29] with power densities up to 40 kW/kg [30]. These superconducting materials conduct currents with nearly no resistive losses [31]. HTS materials have to be cryocooled under a critical temperature of 27–77 K to enable superconducting [32]. Reports from NASA [33], the BHL [34] and Masson et al. [35] predict gravimetric power densities between 7–25 kW/kg for HTS motors including cryogenic cooling with efficiencies from 95–99.5%. The efficiency of electric motors is not highly dependent on the rated power output in comparison to gas turbines [14]. As a design requirement for the PMAD components the rated voltage of the electric propulsion system is needed. Vratny et al. [28] and Jones et al. [36] prove that a system voltage of 3 kV (DC) leads to the highest efficiency for all electric demands, which is chosen for the simulation. Voltage variations are handled by the converters and inverters. Values for commercially available power electronics in the year 2035 go up to 26 kW/kg [37]. Efficiencies are around 98–99.5%. However, the weight of cryocoolers has to be taken into account in addition to the motor and PMAD power to weight ratios. Since the systems come with a high fixed weight for pumps and tanks, these are assumed to offer weight reduction potential for larger aircraft only. Consequently, conventional electric components are chosen for the regional aircraft, but it is assumed that the product improvement until 2035 leads to similar power to weight ratios compared to HTS components. Nevertheless, the component efficiencies are significantly lower.PDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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