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Energies 2018, 11, 217 7 of 26 requirements. In this case, it would make sense to utilize the battery as much as possible without larger sizing. Consequently, a variable strategy is introduced for every DoH to test different battery operation strategies between the two extreme points. The battery usage is described with the battery strategy parameter λBat ranging from 0 to 1. Maximum power peak shaving strategy (Figure 2a) is reached with λBat = 0 and the maximum battery energy strategy (Figure 2b) belongs to λBat = 1. Values of this parameter in between these options are varied and exemplarily shown in Figure 2c. An operation strategy equation that provides the electric power depending on the strategy parameter is defined to determine the battery energy for the mission with Equation (4). It can be translated into the battery power using Equation (3). PEM(t) = max(PTotal(t)−PGT,max,0)+λBat ×(min(PEM,max,PTotal(t))−max(PTotal(t)−PGT,max, 0)) (4) 2.3.3. Reserve Mission In addition to the design flight, a reserve mission for special flight events such as flying to an alternate airport has to be considered for the OAD [8]. The additional energy needed for the reserve mission is carried on-board for each flight, but is mostly not retrieved. Since the battery exploitation is already optimized with the described operation strategy, a minimized usage of the battery is strived for the reserve mission. This equals a λBat = 0. The battery is only sized to power the reserve mission, when the gas turbine power rating is not sufficient. 2.4. Figures of Merit As stated in the research question, the central focus of propulsion innovations lies on the reduction of emissions. Different perspectives on CO2 emissions are possible. Airlines and aircraft manufacturers count the tank-to- wheel energy conversion only. In this calculation, electricity is assumed to be generated from renewable energy plants that do not cause emissions. Hence, the emissions are directly proportional to the fuel burn of the aircraft, which causes 3.14 kg CO2 per kg fuel [43]. The analysis in Section 4 refers to this perspective only. A holistic investigation of the CO2 emissions of aviation in Section 5 considers additional environmental impacts for the well-to-tank process. Whereas 0.61 kg CO2/kg fuel [43] has to be added for the conventional route, the electricity generation is characterized by an average OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) measure of 0.42 kg CO2/kWh electricity [44]. Second aspect of the overall target is to provide a cost competitive HEA configuration. The direct operational costs (DOC) are measured with a DOC model adopted from Bardenhagen and Goblin [45]. It is adjusted for hybrid electric aircraft. Energy costs for electricity and fuel, depreciation costs of the aircraft including the battery investment, maintenance costs for airframe, propulsion and overhead technology costs, labor costs for crew, airport and navigation fees are considered. A detailed description of the model is provided in Appendix A. 3. Simulation Methods The simulation methods including aircraft top-level requirements, propulsion parameters and the simulation structure are described in this section. 3.1. Aircraft Top-Level Requirements Design requirements are basic input factors needed for the OAD simulation. Main input is the given design mission, for which the aircraft performance is determined. Here, the aircraft top-level requirements include a regional flight with full payload. According to the design of the reference aircraft 95 kg per PAX are chosen [46]. A NASA study of regional (<900 NM) air transportation demand in the US in 2030 depicts that 85% of all trips will be less than 350 NM long [13]. Hence, a design range of 350 NM is chosen for this simulation, which equals 648 km. Design missions for this type of aircraft are in an altitude of FL250 with Mach 0.44. Takeoff field length is 1200 m and landing length is 1060 m. Safety requirements for reserve mission and the OEI case are incorporated in the simulationPDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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