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Energies 2018, 11, 217 8 of 26 with a 45 min of additional cruise in 1500 ft as reserve and a minimum gradient of second climb with 2.4% for twin-engine aircraft and 3% for aircraft with four or more engines [47]. 3.2. Propulsion Parameters The parameters used in the simulation are summarized in Table 1. Gravimetric densities and efficiency factors of the chosen technologies include subsystems such as cooling. HTS technology, which has the main advantage of causing fewer losses, is not applied. Hence, lower efficiencies of the electric motor and PMAD comparable to current technology are chosen. The power densities for these conventional cooled systems are assumed to develop similar to HTS components. The previously described nickel-plated aluminum cable is taken. The current rating is derived from the maximum power that each of the electric motors delivers. The length of the cables is equal to the distances between the energy source and the electric motors. Table 1. Overview of electric propulsion components parameters. Components Electric motor Inverter/converter Electric cable Battery 1 (low power Li-S) Battery 2 (high power Li-S) Battery 3 (similar to Li-Air) Gravimetric Densities 15 kW/kg 20 kW/kg 0.00324 kg/A/m 1 0.65 kWh/kg 0.4 kW/kg 0.65 kWh/kg 1 kW/kg 1 kWh/kg 1 kW/kg 1 3 kV system voltage chosen. Efficiencies Sources 95% [30,33–35] 98% [37,48] 98.5% [38] 90% [16,39,40] 90% [39–41] 90% [17,49] Three different batteries are used in the simulation. There are many challenges in handling metal-air battery systems, e.g., material testing in an oxidation environment [49]. Thus, there is a high uncertainty that these systems will be commercialized until 2035 [50]. Consequently, Li-S cells with a high power performance (Battery 2) are chosen for the main simulations. Improved gravimetric densities are assumed to be reached in the next decades as the battery pack gravimetric density is chosen to be the same as the current cell gravimetric densities found in the literature [40–42]. The gravimetric densities of Battery 3 are adopted from prospective metal-air systems. Effects as gaining weight when a metal-air battery is discharged are not considered. The efficiency of the batteries is kept pessimistic with 90% as the efficiency decreases with a lower state of charge (SOC). This ensures that the battery delivers the required power at each SOC. In the simulation of the battery performance, a unified energy model is included in the simulation which allows a maximum discharging capacity of 80% to ensure a longer lifetime of the battery. A battery specific polarization model considering cell voltage and discharge current in dependence on SOC is not required in this early design stage. 3.3. Simulation Structure In addition to the advantages of HEA such as lower in-flight emissions, lower noise, more efficient energy conservation and more-reliable systems, a wide range of other novel technology integrations can be enabled [19]. For example, HEA allows the efficient application of wing tip vortices without having the efficiency and weight penalties of small turbo-machinery. The study of HEA impacts can be regarded as a vehicle trade-off or optimization problem that faces multiple technology scenarios and challenges. The basic modeling approach is based on the aircraft design and optimization tool which considers the major flight phases such as takeoff, climb, cruise, descend and landing. The modeling approach isPDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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