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Energies 2018, 11, 217 15 of 26 for the specific P/E-ratio. In this comparison, Battery 2 has an optimal fit to the mission P/E-ratio with 1.54 kW/kWh (Figure 7c,d). It offers the best battery exploitation for delivering as much mission energy as possible (RTP-0.9-y or FEA configuration). However, in the FEA case the battery weight increases significantly (Figure 7d), because Battery 2 lacks in total battery energy density and causes a high MTOW and costs. Battery 3 has a P/E-ratio of 1 kW/kWh. Compared to battery 2 this battery is less utilized for small values of λBat (Figure 7e). However, it is characterized by a high energy density of 1 kWh/kg, which causes a limited growth of the battery mass for larger hybridizations—a FEA becomes feasible with a relatively low battery weight of 6 tons (Figure 7f). These results underline that the P/E-ratio of electrochemical storages fit to the flight mission of a regional FEA. Figure 7. Battery usage and battery masses: (a,b) Battery 1, densities of 0.65 kWh/kg and 0.4 kW/kg; (c,d) Battery 2, densities of 0.65 kWh/kg and 1 kW/kg; (e,f) Battery 3, densities of 1 kWh/kg and 1 kW/kg. Nevertheless, the power and energy density of the battery limits the feasibility of these OAD. HEA configurations, which are designed for power peak shaving only, require energy storages with higher P/E-ratios. These may not be realizable with electrochemical storages. Mechanical or electrical storages, e.g., flywheels and supercapacitors, respectively, are characterized by larger P/E-ratios > 50 kW/kWh [60,61]. However, their gravimetric energy densities are low with a maximum of 0.1 kWh/kg. High weights are the result limiting their application in an aviation context. Generally, the P/E-ratio is an important measure in battery research and has to fit to the flight mission of the targeted aircraft segment. The available battery technology determines the operation strategy, which should focus a full exploitation of the battery energy. The gravimetric densities are the critical battery parameters. These have to be optimized to guarantee technologically feasible HEA configurations in 2035 and beyond. Nevertheless, sensitivity studies of other parameters as the lifetime and the residual value emphasize that these are important levers to make HEA configurations a profitable business case. 5. Environmental Impact and Sensitivity Studies In this section, the environmental impact of HEA and FEA configurations is investigated. The main motivation of reducing emissions of aircraft from a political perspective should be holistic and also consider well-to-wheel emissions. A flight causes the emissions for fuel production and electricityPDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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