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Energies 2018, 11, 217 16 of 26 generation besides the tank-to-wheel combustion. For considerations of the electricity generation the average OECD mix with 0.42 kg CO2 per kWh electricity is taken [44]. Propulsion component and aircraft productions are not incorporated in this investigation. The results are presented in a heat map shown in Figure 8a. Contour lines display the DOC per flight. CO2 emissions decrease with larger hybridization and reach an optimum for RTP-0.66-1 with 22% savings. A FEA that does not cause CO2 emissions is not achievable, when electricity is drawn with the average OECD electricity production mix. Although the FEA does not cause any emissions in flight, the CO2 pollution increases compared to the HEA configurations with HP = [0.4, 0.7] and λBat = 1. Due to the highly increased battery weight in the FEA case the total energy demand grows tremendously and the additional electricity demand leads to higher emissions. Figure 8. Total CO2 emissions per flight in case of Battery 2 (0.65 kWh/kg, 1 kW/kg): (a) Total CO2 emissions (heat map) and DOC per flight (contour lines); (b) PARETO-front for optimal configurations. If the total CO2 emissions and the DOC per flight from Figure 8a are related to the reference aircraft RTP-0-0, the CO2 emissions improvement and deviation of DOC compared to the reference can be obtained. In Figure 8b both measures are plotted against each other. Each marker corresponds to one configuration resulting from variation of hybridization and battery strategy parameter in a resolution of 0.05. This analysis allows to directly identify the change in DOC that correspond to a specific CO2 emission reduction. The so called PARETO-front (black line) represents that configuration, for which the least DOC increase can be obtained for a certain CO2 reduction. It is not possible to further reduce the CO2 emissions without increasing the DOC. It can be directly seen that just minor DOC savings can be achieved for very low CO2 emission reductions. The maximum emission savings of around 22% are only reached if a 24%-increase of DOC is tolerated. This result can be obtained with a hybridization of 0.66 and a strategy parameter of 1 (RTP-0.66-1). Up to 5% of emissions can be saved, almost without increasing DOC. In general a clear trend can be observed for higher DOC with higher emission reduction. The diagram also underlines that the FEA (red circle) causes significantly higher costs and does not improve the emission balance. Consequently, the targeted emission savings according to the Flightpath 2050 do not seem realistic, when the pollution aspect is viewed from this macro-economic perspective. The PARETO-front obtained from Figure 8b serves as reference for the following sensitivity studies. These sensitivity studies are made to understand the levers, which influence the environmental impact of electric propulsion in the aviation context. First, the effect of different carbon footprints for the electricity generation is tested. The renewable energy power plant capacity is increasing in most countries. Governments target large shares of these more environmentally friendly power plants for the future electricity generation. The effect of this carbon footprint on the environmental friendliness of HEA is shown in Figure 9a. The PARTEO-front determined in Figure 8b serves as reference, for whichPDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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