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Energies 2018, 11, 217 17 of 26 a carbon dioxide emission for electricity generation of 0.42 kg CO2/kWh (OECD-mix) is assumed. When the electricity is generated with renewable energy power plants (0 kg/kWh), a FEA is free from carbon emissions, but causes 48% higher DOC. A HEA with 48% emission savings causes 10% higher DOC. Countries such as Germany, where the electricity generation relies still significantly on fossil power plants, have higher average carbon dioxide emission per kWh electricity. This is shown with the +50% trend (0.63 kg CO2/kWh electricity) in Figure 9a. The trend lines emphasize the large influence of the form of electricity generation on the eco-friendliness of HEA and FEA. It shows that an improved environmental friendliness of aircraft should be combined with further expansion of renewable energy plants. Figure 9. Sensitivity studies of CO2 factors: PARETO-fronts for (a) variation of emissions of electricity generation; (b) OECD electricity generation mix and variation of CO2 emission costs and (c) electricity from renewable energy only and variation of CO2 emission costs. If HEA would be available in the next years and draw electricity with the OECD mix, political instruments to reduce pollution could favor the business case of electric propulsion. Mechanisms as carbon dioxide taxes or certificates are discussed by politicians and researchers [62]. Thus, the magnitude of certificate prices that are considered is at least 20–30 EUR per tCO2. In Figure 9b a sensitivity study of such policies for HEA powered with the OECD mix is done. It underlines that these have a very limited impact. No larger cost advantages for HEA or FEA can be found compared to the scenario without CO2 pricing. Almost all PARETO-fronts are equal to the correspondingPDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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