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Energies 2018, 11, 217 18 of 26 PARETO-front obtained from Figure 8b (no CO2 pricing). A benefit of only 5% less DOC increase is the result of introducing emission certificates with around 200 EUR per tCO2 for RTP-0.66-1 in this OECD emission scenario. The reason for this result can be found in the high carbon dioxide emissions of the OECD electricity mix (0.42 kg CO2/kWh), due to which HEA configurations have almost no benefit from CO2 pricing. Therefore, another sensitivity study in Figure 9c investigates the same lever, but a future scenario, when batteries are charged with emission free electricity. In this case, the emissions directly correlate with the fuel burn of the combustion system. Additional triggers for such external effects could be increased fuel prices due to scarcity of oil resources. This affects the conventional aircraft and HEA configurations with low hybridizations, when larger amounts of fuel are burnt. As the battery energy has no carbon footprint in this scenario, HEA with operation strategies delivering much battery mission energy profit from the penalty costs for conventional systems. These configurations become more profitable compared to the conventional aircraft. If CO2 emissions cost 200 EUR/tCO2, HEA configurations with 31% CO2 savings are still cost competitive. The sensitivity studies depict the two most important political levers for environmental friendly aviation. First, policies that support the expansion of renewable electricity generation and second, costs for burning fuel influence the environmental impact and economic profitability of electric propulsion systems in the aviation context positively. 6. Conclusions and Discussion Within this contribution, the role of the battery in hybrid electric propulsion systems and its impact on the environmental friendliness of such aircraft are investigated. The provided simulation results of HEA configurations in the aviation context clarify that the technological feasibility of HEA mainly depends on the battery performance and thus its weight. An aircraft designer can use the introduced propulsion strategy to optimize future HEA configurations. It has to be distinguished between the power-to-energy-ratio and the gravimetric density performance of the battery. These should be designed to suit the operation strategy and the mission profile of the aircraft. An optimal propulsion strategy has to be found for every OAD to guarantee maximal battery energy exploitation. Thus, battery research efforts should focus on lighter and long-life materials to enable the feasibility of hybrid electric propulsion for aircraft. The results show that HEA in the regional aircraft segment with 350 NM range can be cost competitive compared to conventional powered aircraft. Furthermore, assuming todays electricity mix, low hybridization (RTP-0.1-0.25) allows moderate (around 8%) reduction of tank-to-wheel CO2 emissions for similar costs. A RTP-0.66-1 reaches a reduction of emissions by 22%, however DOC increases by around 24%. However, an additional sensitivity study shows that the results have a strong variation with regard to the future development in the electricity sector and possible CO2 pricing. For example, the macro-economic analysis of the total carbon dioxide emissions of HEA configurations emphasizes the importance of charging the batteries with electricity from renewable sources. The provided sensitivity studies show that policy makers are able to influence environmental friendliness of HEA by pushing the transformation of the electricity generation towards more renewable energy plants. They can also influence the business case of HEA by regulating CO2 emissions in form of higher fossil taxes or a certificate system. Thus, aircraft and electric propulsion component manufacturers can pro-actively shape the future of new propulsion systems for aircraft. This could be achieved by investments into research for faster commercialized, high performance and light electric components. If these requirements are not met in the next decades, it seems unlikely that the targets of the Flightpath 2050 will be met. A further focus on more detailed investigations in several disciplines of the aviation landscape is needed. New aerodynamic concepts, propulsion components and their impact in the overall transportation system are only a few examples of prospective required research. Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge the support of the Ministry for Science and Culture of Lower Saxony (Grant No. VWZN3177) for funding the research project “Energy System Transformation in Aviation” inPDF Image | Design of Operation Strategies for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
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