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8 Friction 7(1): 2–17 (2019) pre‐factor as an effective attempt frequency. Gact is the total free energy of activation for wear, which is equal to Uact N Vact . In this sense, Uact indicates the internal free energy of activation by chemical processes and N Vact links the normal load stress N (governed by Eq. (13)) and the effective activation volume Vact to provide the tribological contribution to the material removal process [55]. Table 3 Triboelectric series short summary. More positively charged (+) F F applied adhesive NA contact (13) Rabbit’s Fur, Hair Glass Mica Wool Nylon Lead Silk Aluminum Paper Wood Amber Sealing wax Rubber Balloon Nickel Copper Δ Brass Silver Gold Polyester (PET) Polystyrene Acrylic Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride w/plasticizer Silicon Polyethylene Polypropylene Polytrifluorochloroethylene Teflon (PTFE) Silicon Rubber Ebonite More Negatively Charged (-) Through the above relations, when a (nano‐)material is analyzed for the triboelectric effect, we can more confidently expect exponentially coherent relations among the load stress, material transfer (mainly the wear rate), and tribo‐charging value [34, 38]. Finally, as listed in Table 1, tribo‐charging through both ion and (nano‐)material has the varying unit charge carrying capacity, which also complicates the discriminations between ion and (nano‐)material transfer. To achieve the goal, some methods have been proposed, one of which is described as follows: The tribo‐charging characteristics of polymers are insensitive to the carbon black incorporation, whereas metals become much triboelectrically susceptible to carbon black composition. Therefore, carbon black can be added and traced, and the change in triboelectric signals caused by carbon black can be the judgment. Therefore, the use of carbon black can help distinguish whether the material transfer will contribute to the tribo‐charging process [51]. 3 Triboelectric series The most important notion in the triboelectric effect is to empirically set up the triboelectric series, which gives a general idea of how the charging will take place when any two materials are brought into contact through rubbing, pressing, or friction. This helps simplify the triboelectrification analyses for other applications including TENGs (e.g., which use Al and PTFE as the potential surface materials [58]). A more detailed and complete triboelectric series list is provided below in Table 3 [1, 27]. A more scientific segregation for the triboelectric series based on pure * Pure polymers (not mixtures) are marked in red. Pure metals as the segregation points are marked in blue. metals as the division points can be referred to in Ref. [49]. The intensive research has cast light on some triumphing trend explanation for the above triboelectric series. It has been confirmed that polymers having strong tendencies to charge positively have high dielectric constants, and are highly polar and hydrophilic [29]. For example, it is found that polymers with oxygen functional groups (more polar) will be charged more positively than those with nitrogen functional groups [36]. This fits well with the sequence shown in Table 3, supported by Fig. 6. However, while triumphing over the fitness between the material selection and the triboelectric series, the research into its sequence is still not enough. Some contradictory experiments are reported; for example, the triboelectric sequence of polyethylene and polypropylene is confusing. Besides, both interesting and esoteric phenomena are observed, two of which with the huge puzzle for scientists are the cyclic triboelectric series and tribo‐electrification of identical materials. For these observations, still insufficient evidence is proved to support the theories and no consistent experiment results are convincing. | https://mc03.manuscriptcentral.com/frictionPDF Image | Fundamental theories basic principles of triboelectric effect
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