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E. A. Emam/Petroleum & Coal 57(5) 532-555, 2015 536 Other pollutants such as sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic components (VOC) also released from flaring [1,6,16-19]. Ezersky and Lips [19] studied an emis- sions in US from a number of oil refinery flare systems in the Bay Area Management District (California). They concluded that, the emissions ranged from 2.5 to 55 tons/day of total organic compounds, and from 6 to 55 tons/day SOx. Therefore, flare emissions may be a significant percentage of overall SO2 and VOC emissions. In addition, gaseous pollutants like SO2 that are once emitted into the atmosphere have no boundaries and become uncontrollable and cause acid deposition. Several toxicological/epidemiological investigations during the last few decades have shown that the effect of this gas is severe. SOx and NOx are the major causes of acid rain and fog which harm the natural environment and human life [20]. Also ozone has been revealed to cause damage. Ozone is also produced by the photochemical reaction of VOC and NOx as the main components of the oxidant. The oxidant accelerates the oxidation of SO2 and NOx into toxic sulfuric and nitric acids, respectively. The removal of VOC and NO is very important to reduce the concentration of ozone [21]. On the other hand, a smoking flare may be a significant contributor to overall particulate emissions [22]. Because the most flared gas normally has not been treated or cleaned, pose demanding service applications where there is a potential for condensation, fouling (e.g., due to the build-up of paraffin wax and asphaltine deposits), corrosion (e.g., due to the presence of H2S, moisture, or some air) and possibly abrasion (e.g., due to the presence of debris, dust and corrosion products in the piping and high flow velocities) [23]. The quantity of the generated emissions from flaring is dependent on the combustion effi- ciency [9]. The combustion efficiency generally expressed as a percentage is essentially the amount of hydrocarbon converted to CO2. In other words, the combustion efficiency of a flare is a measure of how effective that flare is in converting all of the carbon in the fuel to CO2. There are some factors effects in the efficiency of combustion process in flares such as heating value, velocity of gases entering to flare, meteorological conditions and its effects on the flame size [24]. Properly operated flares achieve at least 98 % combustion efficiency in the flare plume, meaning that hydrocarbon and CO emissions amount to less than 2 % of species in the gas stream [25], demonstrated that properly designed and operated industrial flares are highly efficient. Many studies concluded that flares have highly variable efficiencies between 62 - 99 % [26-27]. In order to increase the combustion efficiency, the steam or air is used as assis- tant in flares, which create a turbulent mixing, and better contact between carbon and oxy- gen [28]. Excess air has implications on emissions, specifically related to the creation of NOx. The availability of extra nitrogen found in the air and additional heat required to maintain combus- tion temperatures are favourable conditions for the formation of thermal NO [29]. More-over, greater amounts of excess air create lower amounts of CO but also cause more heat loss [9]. As a results from the above, gas flaring has a significant impact on environment due to possi- ble presence of many harmful compounds. The scale of impact depends on the flared gas composition [9]. The impacts of flare emissions can be concluded as the following [6,15-18]: the low quality gas that is flared releases many impurities and toxic particles into the atmo- sphere, harmful effects on human health associated with exposure to these pollutants and the eco- systems. products of combustion can be hazardous when present in high amounts, the waste gas contains CO2 and H2S, which are both weakly acidic gases and become corrosive in the presence of water, acidic rain, caused by SOx in the atmosphere, is one of the main environmental hazards, acid rains wreak havoc on the environment destroying crops, roofs and impacting human health, CO causes reduction in oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, which may lead to death, uncontrolled NOx emission could be injurious to health,PDF Image | GAS FLARING IN INDUSTRY
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