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E. A. Emam/Petroleum & Coal 57(5) 532-555, 2015 542 Development Mechanism (CDM) by offering ‘Certified Emissions Reductions’ provides flaring and venting reduction projects [48]. Several steps may be help to reduce the flared gas losses such as: proper operation and maintenance of flares systems, modifying start-up and shut-down procedures. Also, eliminating leaking valves, efficient use of fuel gases required for proper operation of the flare and better control of steam to achieve smokeless burning all contribute to reducing flare losses. Recovery methods may also use to minimize environmental and economical disadvantages of burning flare gas. Recently, several technology in flare tip design offers the greatest reduction in flare loss [10]. Even in most advanced countries only a decade has passed from FGRS, thus the method is a new methods for application in refineries wastes. Of such countries active in FGRS are USA, Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. Most FGRS has been installed based primarily on economics, where the payback on the equipment was short enough to justify the capital cost. Such systems were sized to collect most, but not all, of the waste gases. The transient spikes of high gas flows are typically very infrequent, meaning normally it is not economically justified to collect the highest flows of waste gas because they are so sporadic. However, there is increasing interest in reducing flaring not based on economics, but on environmental consi- derations [7]. There is a range of methods to reduce and recover flaring, it is summarized as the followings [6,16,23,49,50]: 1. Collection, compression, and injection/reinjection a. into oil fields for enhanced oil recovery; b. into wet gas fields for maximal recovery of liquids; c. into of gas into an aquifer; d. into the refinery pipelines; e. collection and delivery to a nearby gas-gathering system; f. shipping the collecting flared gas to treatment plants before subsequent use; g. using as an onsite fuel source; h. using as a feedstock for petrochemicals production; 2. Gas-to-liquid (GTL) a. converting to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); b. converting to liquefied natural gas (LNG); c. converting to chemicals and fuels; 3. Generating electricity a. burning flared gas in incinerators and recovering exhaust heat for further use (generation and co-generation of steam and electricity). Decision of flaring or processing of gas depends on gas prices. Gas flaring would be proce- ssed and sold if prices would remain high enough for a long period, and all required infrastructure could be built for gas processing and transportation [2]. On the other hand, in order to select the best method for flared gas recovery and reduction, operators must have a good under- standing of how the flare gases are produced, distributed and best consumed at the produc- tion facility. FGRS have been also impeded by a number of technical challenges [7], such as a combination of highly variable flow rates and composition, low heating value and low pressure of the waste gases [1,3]. In the case of very large volumes of associated flared gas, gas-to- liquid (GTL) conversion this gas into more valuable and more easily transported liquid fuels, or production of liquefied natural gas (LNG) to facilitate transport to distant markets, are potential options [51-52]. Both GTL and LNG options require enormous capital investments of infrastructure and must process very large volumes of gas to be economic [13]. However, reinjection of the gas flaring has been successfully used at several sites to dispose of residual “acid-gas” (primarily hydrogen sulphide, H2S, and CO2 with traces of hydrocarbons) from gas sweetening plants where the costs of reinjection are less than the costs of sulphur removal [52-53]. The use of flared gas to generate electricity for on-site use is a demonstrated option, but this approach is not always economic and can be limited by the on-site demand for electricity [54]. By contrast, the collection and compression of gas into pipelines for proce- ssing and sale is a well-established and proven approach to mitigating flaring and venting [13].PDF Image | GAS FLARING IN INDUSTRY
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