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E. A. Emam/Petroleum & Coal 57(5) 532-555, 2015 549 pressure, higher molecular mass, and higher mass flow compared to water. So, the turbine efficiencies of ORCs are higher than in SRC. Additionally, ORC systems can be utilized for waste heat sources as low as 148 oC, whereas steam systems are limited to heat sources greater than 260 oC. ORCs have commonly been used to generate power in geothermal power plants, and more recently, in pipeline compressor heat recovery applications [91]. In 2007, the World Bank commissioned a large study by PFC Consulting to examine eco- nomic options for associated gas monetization in Russia [94]. Electric power generation and development of gas processing plants were found to be the most efficient ways to use flared gas. In addition, it was concluded that at a netback price of around $1.42 per MMBTU close to 80 % of Russia’s associated gas could be economically recovered [94]. Use of flared gas as a feed of fuel cell can be considered as a new approach to FGRS. Fuel cells are power-generation systems that convert directly the chemical energy of fuel to electricity. Among the various types of fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is more efficient [95]. SOFC is known as an environmental friendly power generation technology. SOFC is a kind of fuel cell contains two porous electrodes, which are separated by a nonporous oxide ion-conducting ceramic electrolyte. SOFC operates at temperatures between 600 - 1000 oC and uses H2 containing gas mixture as a feed and O2 of air as an oxidant [96]. The high operation tempe- rature leads flexibility of using various fuel types such as methane, methanol, ethanol, biogas and etc. [97]. SOFC technology reduces CO2 emission by about 55 %. Additionally there are approximately zero emissions of criteria pollutants (NOx, SOx, CO, particles and organic com- pounds) and very low noise emission. Saidi et al. [98] developed an electrochemical model for a steady-state, planar SOFC by considering the direct internal methane steam reforming for flare gas recovery of Asalouyeh gas processing plant in Iran. In this configuration, there is no pre-reforming and the sweetened flare gas is fed to SOFC directly. The using of this SOFC generates about 1200 MW electrical energy, and decreases the equivalent mass of GHG emission from 1700 kg/s to 68 kg/s. In addition, the total capital investment of this method is significantly lower than other no gas flaring approaches. Tianjin Municipal Government in China [99] was initiated a project to recover landfill gas, which was otherwise being released into the atmosphere, and burn pretreated landfill gas for electricity generation or discharged to flaring. The produced landfill gas consists of 50 % CH4 and 50 % other gases, such as CO2 and additional gases including non-methane organic com- pounds. The project will obtain revenues from the sale of electricity which, over the project’s life, will amount to $ 36.2 million. The project has been registered as a CDM project under the Kyoto protocol and reached an agreement with the World Bank to purchase the certified emission credits (CERs) from the project. 5.4 Other methods to reduce flaring Many authors investigated the different methods of FGRS to reduce the emissions from different industries and reduce fuel costs, visible flame, odors and the auxiliary flare utilities such as steam. Mourad et. al. [50] investigated the recovery of flared gas through crude oil stabilization by a multistage separation with intermediate feeds. Xu et. al. [100] investigated a general methodology on flare minimization for chemical plant start-up operations via plant wide dynamic simulation. Ghadyanlou and Vatani [1] investigated methods to recover flare gases and thus reduce gas flaring in olefin plants. The case study concluded that significant amounts of ethylene about 43.3 Mt/hr and fuel gas about 10.8 Mt/hr can be recovered. Addi- tionally, about $ 9 million/year of valuable gases are returned to the plant and the investment costs are recovered after about three years of operation of the FGRU. Maung et. al. [101] concluded that, the economic potential of using flared natural gas as a feedstock to produce a low-cost, reliable, and sustainable supply of nitrogen fertilizer for North Dakota farmers in the United States was examined. For most processing plants the biggest problem has been removing the H2S in the natural gas. In the case where they couldn’t remove it, the gas would be flared. If the gas contains too much sulfur it cannot be sold and flared. If the gas contains satisfies the requirements,PDF Image | GAS FLARING IN INDUSTRY
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