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Fig. 1. Worldwide distribution of the approximately 85 geothermal fields developed for the production of electricity. The 20 named fields with installed capacity of greater than 100 MW represent about 6 GW, or 75% of the total worldwide installed geothermal generation capacity. Two thirds of this comes from the U.S., the Philippines, and Mexico. All of the geothermal capacity in the U.S. is in the tectonically and volcanically active western states. ancy forces. This up-flowing hot water may accumulate in a shallow aquifer, and create an economic geothermal re- source. Starting 20 years ago, experiments have been conducted in hot dry rock (HDR) in the U.S., U.K., France, and Japan, where heat is extracted from rocks that are not naturally fractured and where permeability is low. If this technology becomes commercial, the resource base of geothermal energy will increase by several orders of magnitude world- wide. The principal technology issues to be addressed for HDR are drilling costs, control of water loss, and improved fracture stimulation and mapping methods. The terms hot wet rock (HWR) [4] and more recently enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) [5] are also in use to describe research into heat extraction from low permeability geothermal systems. Two other types of geothermal resource were investigated in the 1980s with U.S. Government funding: “Geopressured” resources, where methane-rich fluids below 4.5 km depth are contained in reservoirs with 70 MPa pressure and 150 C temperature [6], and “Magma” resources, where heat was extracted directly from cooling magma on active volcanoes [7]. II. EXPLORATION The rate of heat loss at the earth’s surface [2] is estimated at 4 10 W, 30% of which is from continental areas. Heat flows are typically in the range 20–120 mW/m , averaging 87 mW/m , but in regions of recent volcanic activity where molten magmas have ascended from the earth’s mantle and 1784 reside in the crust beneath volcanic chains, heat flow can be an order of magnitude higher. Hot springs and fumaroles are common surface manifestations of this excess heat flow from cooling magma and almost all the exploited geothermal systems were drilled because of the occurrence of surface thermal features. An analogy may be drawn with the early oil industry, where surface oil seeps attracted wildcatters. It is likely that many magmatically driven systems have no sur- face expression, and remain to be discovered. The fluids circulating in a geothermal system react chem- ically with their host rocks, altering both the mineralogy of the rock and the chemistry of the dissolved species in the water. The altered state of both the water and rock are used in the process of exploring for commercial geothermal sys- tems. Chemical analysis of waters from hot springs and of gases from fumaroles yields important information about the temperature and other conditions under which they reacted with geothermal system host rocks. This is a cost-effective way to explore for the hottest and chemically most attractive systems. The electrical resistivity of rocks and fluids in and around a convecting geothermal system is modified by a combination of chemical and thermal effects [8]. An increase in cation- exchange capacity creates a 5 m conductor above the reservoir, against a typical background of 20 m, which is easily detectable using a combination of magnetotelluric and time-domain electromagnetic methods on the surface. The size and shape of a geothermal reservoir can often be deduced from its electrical response. Shallow holes drilled to several hundred meters depth are often used to measure PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 89, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2001 Authorized licensed use limited to: National United University. Downloaded on October 10, 2009 at 14:17 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.PDF Image | Geothermal Power Technology
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