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Fig. 2. Schematic cross section through the earth’s crust showing the key elements of a typical commercial volcanic-hosted geothermal system. The exploration process typically includes the sampling and analysis of waters and gases from hot springs and fumaroles, geophysical measurement of subsurface rock resistivities using the time-domain electromagnetic (1 km depth of investigation) and magnetotellurics (5 km depth of investigation) techniques, and both shallow and deep drilling. The goal of shallow drilling is to identify and map the conductive heat flow anomaly overlying the geothermal system. The goal of deep drilling is to penetrate the geothermal reservoir, if it exists, and produced fluids. conductive heat flow overlying geothermal systems, and to confirm that the resistivity anomalies are indeed the result of an active hydrothermal system. The final and only definitive method to establish the pres- ence and prove the viability of a geothermal system for power generation, is drilling into the reservoir itself and producing fluids to the surface. Multiple wells are required to confirm the system’s size and to determine the optimum exploitation strategy. III. DRILLING Geothermal drilling dates from the early twentieth cen- tury. While the earliest geothermal wells were drilled uti- lizing cable tool technology, most geothermal wells now in existence were drilled using the rotary method, which is also widely used in the oil and gas drilling industry. The high tem- peratures found in geothermal systems initially created prob- lems in elastomers, in fluids circulated to cool the well, in cements used to bond the casing to the formation and even in the strength of the metals used for down hole tubulars, but the most serious challenges have been overcome in the past 40 years. Because of the relatively small geothermal market, technology development has lagged that in the oil and gas industry. Advanced measurement-while-drilling tools and a WILLIAMSON et al.: GEOTHERMAL POWER TECHNOLOGY number of logging tools that have improved productivity in oil and gas are not yet available for high-temperature appli- cations. Government-sponsored research by the DOE in the U.S., and NEDO in Japan has helped stimulate development of some tools. The principal challenge now facing geothermal drilling is one of cost reduction. Highly metamorphosed or volcanic formations found in typical geothermal settings can slow drilling progress to a small fraction of that achievable in softer sedimentary formations associated with oil and gas. Faulting and fracturing of the formations can make it diffi- cult to maintain orientation of the hole while drilling and the low formation pressures found in the fractures encountered during drilling make it extremely difficult to circulate the fluids, needed to cool and clean the wellbore, back to the surface. Geothermal wells need to transmit large volume flows of hot fluid to be commercial, and this requires that they be completed with large diameter casings. Fig. 3 illustrates the well design commonly used for geothermal wells. The master valve in the picture is a 305-mm (12 inch) valve and the production casings are a 273-mm (10-3/4 inch) perforated liner, a 340-mm (13-3/8 inch) liner and tieback. These diameters compare to the 89-mm (3-1/2 inch) tubing and the 76-mm (3 inch) valves common to oil and gas completions. The added formation that must be excavated for a geothermal well accounts for Authorized licensed use limited to: National United University. Downloaded on October 10, 2009 at 14:17 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply. 1785PDF Image | Geothermal Power Technology
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