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Fig. 4. Geothermal process diagram showing production wells, separator, scrubber, turbine, condenser, and cooling tower. After being separated from steam, brine is injected back into the reservoir. Steam is piped to the plant where it passes through a scrubber before entering the turbine, and is then condensed. Condensed steam is used in the cooling towers where roughly 80% evaporates, and the remainder is injected back into the reservoir. Steam exiting the turbine is condensed in a direct contact condenser, supplied with cold water from a cross-flow cooling tower. The condensed steam and the cooling water are returned to the cooling tower. The design of geothermal turbines has to take into account the potential for scaling, corrosion, and high moisture con- tent occurring in the steam. First-stage nozzle diaphragms can develop a layer of scale that restricts the steam passage. Geothermal turbines are usually made of the same alloys as low pressure turbines used in fossil-fired plants, with vari- ations in the alloy composition of the blades and rotors to enhance the alloy’s ability to withstand corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. The last stage of the turbine must accom- modate high moisture content and minimize blade leading edge erosion. Both stellite shields and blade surface hard- ening are used to resist the impingement of moisture. Be- cause of chemical impurities found in geothermal steam, last- stage blades are designed for lower maximum stresses than in fossil-fired plants where steam purity is high. This results in geothermal turbines being rated for lower steam flows per square meter of exhaust area than turbines in fossil power plants. The combined effect of the limited blade length and the reduced flow rate per unit area limit the maximum size that can be achieved in a geothermal turbine-generator. Thus it is common to see three 55 MW units installed in a single power house, rather than a single 165-MW unit. The heat rejection system of a geothermal power plant is 3–4 times larger than that of a fossil-fired power plant of comparable power output because of the low available en- WILLIAMSON et al.: GEOTHERMAL POWER TECHNOLOGY ergy per kilogram of geothermal steam. Unless H S pollu- tion abatement is required, geothermal condensers are direct contact type, where water from the cooling towers is sprayed into the steam exiting the turbine. Heat transfer in this type of condenser is efficient, and high noncondensable gas con- tents can be accommodated, but because the cooling water is exposed to CO , H S, and NH , biological growth in the circulating water must be retarded with biocides. Between 70% and 80% of the steam that enters the turbine is eventu- ally evaporated in the cooling tower. A wide range of noncondensable gas contents are found in geothermal steam, with CO being the dominant species at typically 90 by weight, followed by H S at typically 5 by weight. Other minor constituents include NH , CH , N and H . Noncondensable gases are removed using compressors and/or steam-driven ejectors (Fig. 5). For example, the power plants at Tiwi, Philippines, with a relatively high gas content in steam of 3%, can use either a two-stage steam jet gas ejector that consumes 71 000 kg/h of geothermal steam or a hybrid system of first-stage ejector and second-stage liquid ring vacuum pump consuming 15 150 kg/h of steam and imposing a 1.2% parasitic load on generation. VI. U.S. EXPERIENCE The U.S. has the largest installed geothermal capacity of any country in the world. As of year 2000 the installed capacity [11] was 2546 MW . Early geothermal develop- Authorized licensed use limited to: National United University. Downloaded on October 10, 2009 at 14:17 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply. 1787PDF Image | Geothermal Power Technology
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