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Energies 2021, 14, 365 4 of 13 purposes depending on the heat quality. The most common applications are preheating of combustion air or loads before entering the furnace and to other upstream and downstream processes (e.g., drying). In this case, the preheating of combustion air to increase furnace efficiency was considered. The tool outputs allow analysing the PCM-TES system behaviour from an overall perspective (multicriteria analysis), including technical, economic, and environmental impacts. Several key indicator parameters (KPI) were chosen with the purpose of assessing the TES. Some of them were based on the indications of the methodology proposed by IEA ECES-Annex 30 [12] but adapted to industrial applications. If it results in a feasible project according to those indicators, an EII plant could implement the PCM-TES inte- grated into its production process. In this case, it would be advisable to monitor the key indicators from the PCM-TES operation and performance, thus resulting in an iterative retrofeeding process. Finally, the results coming from the implementation of the system in the EII plant could be introduced as feedback to the tool for an evolving optimisation and fine-tuning process. Thus, the core algorithm of the tool can be continuously updated with this new input data. In this sense, the tool results could be applicable and validated in a broad range of industries and working under different operational conditions. 2.2. PCM Database The melting temperature of the PCM must be appropriately selected to take as much advantage as possible from the wasted heat. The selection of the PCM was made evaluating the thermophysical properties of different compounds that accomplish the requirement of the application system, that is, melting temperature, latent heat of fusion, density, thermal conductivity, costs, material composition, and commercial maturity [18,19]. This selection affects the thermal capacity of the system, the quality of heat accumulated, the temperature of the outlet streams, and the sizing of the PCM-TES. When the PCM was chosen, its technical properties defined in the database were charged to perform the calculations. The current database includes a list of commercially available PCM [20] and other potential materials for working at high temperatures [21]. They have been classified into four categories in function of the composition and the temperature range: • organic PCM at low temperature • inorganic salt hydrates at low temperature • inorganic salt hydrates and eutectics at high and medium temperature • metal alloys PCM at medium and high temperature It is essential to mention that the major limitation of inorganic salts is their very low thermal conductivity. Hence, the PCM-TES system requires charging/discharging periods that are too long, and it does not allow one to quickly transfer all heat to the combustion air. On the contrary, a more rapid charging/discharging period would enhance its adaptability to a wider variety of process integration, increasing the replication in other EII sectors and the overall system flexibility. The combustion air speed and the HX transference area should be maximised, hence increasing the convection and the heat transfer coefficient [22]. In this regard, the discharging period can be reduced without compromising the great ranges reached at the combustion air outlet. To do so, the integration of metallic fins [23] and the creation of composites mixed with PCM [24] have become a major focus of the re- searchers. Other thermal conductivity enhancement techniques/methods are, for example, the incorporation of porous metallic foam, structures, or advanced nanomaterial and the consideration of encapsulating the PCM material at micro or macro scales [25]. Despite the low stored energy rate by mass unit in comparison with inorganic salts, metal alloys are an attractive and up-and-coming alternative [26], especially at the high- temperature range, since they offer interesting thermo-physical properties to be used as PCMs in TES. For instance, these compounds usually present high values of thermal con- ductivity, which significantly reduces melting and solidification periods and, subsequently,PDF Image | Latent Heat Storage for Waste Heat Recovery in the Energy Industry
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