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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 4 of 35 There are some available techniques like traditional cantilever-based resonators and transducers to convert mechanical vibrations into electricity but they work effectively for high-frequency vibrations only; on other hand, nanogenerators can be made at nanoscale so that they can effectively harvest the low-frequency mechanical vibrations. In the case of ZnO nanowires, it can be bent more than the bulk ZnO without any damage, making it possible to withstand more strain, and so generates more electricity [8,9]. The different types of nanogenerators and their applications are illustrated in Figure 2. The nanogenerators have shown higher potential and several innovative platforms for mechanical energy harvesting and self-power sensing and monitoring. As technology is growing, there is also a sharp increase in the number of publications in the field of nanogenerators. As per the source of Science Direct database, there are around 469 publications in the year 2018 alone, which is 1.5 times higher when compared to 2017. Figure 3 shows a steady increase in the growth of research in the field Figure 2. Different types of nanogenerators and their applications in the era of the Internet of Things of nanogenerators. (IoT). 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 2000 TENG 2006 2008 2010 Y ear PyENG PENG 2002 2004 2012 2014 2016 2018 Figure 3. The number publications in the ffiield of nanogenerators over the years. 3. Nanogenerators Based on Piezoelectric Effect 3. Nanogenerators Based on Piezoelectric Effect Piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENG) work on the principle of piezoelectric effect, which means Piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENG) work on the principle of piezoelectric effect, which means electricity generation when subjected to mechanical stress. In PENG, two electrodes with balanced electricity generation when subjected to mechanical stress. In PENG, two electrodes with balanced fermi levels on a piezoelectric material are subjected to an external strain, which creates a piezo fermi levels on a piezoelectric material are subjected to an external strain, which creates a piezo potential difference between the internal and external Fermi levels (highest energy state occupied by potential difference between the internal and external Fermi levels (highest energy state occupied by the electrons) at the contacts [2,8,10–15]. To balance this difference in Fermi levels, the charge carriers the electrons) at the contacts [2,8,10–15]. To balance this difference in Fermi levels, the charge carriers flow through the external load and a balanced electrostatic level is reached. Alternatively, applying flow through the external load and a balanced electrostatic level is reached. Alternatively, applying an electric field on a piezoelectric material can cause a mechanical strain. There are two cases of an electric field on a piezoelectric material can cause a mechanical strain. There are two cases of PENG PENG [11,16], one where the individual nanostructure (nanowire/nanorod) [17] is subjected to the strain [11,16], one where the individual nanostructure (nanowire/nanorod) [17] is subjected to the strain exerted perpendicular to the growing direction of the nanowire/nanorod, which leads to the generation exerted perpendicular to the growing direction of the nanowire/nanorod, which leads to the of the electric field. Figure 4a shows the working of PENG when the force is applied perpendicular to generation of the electric field. Figure 4a shows the working of PENG when the force is applied its axis. When a force is applied perpendicular to the direction of the axis of the nanostructure using perpendicular to its axis. When a force is applied perpendicular to the direction of the axis of the atomic force microscopy probe, one portion of the nanostructure is stretched (positive strain) while the other undergoes compression (negative strain) [8]. The stretched surface with positive potential was first contacted by the probe, and at this interface, the bias voltage is negative. Thus, a reversed bias Schottky diode is formed with little current. When the probe contacts the compressed side of the nanostructure with negative potential, a biased positive voltage is formed at the interface with sharp peak output current as driven by the potential difference between the two sides. The current flow due to the ohmic contact formed at the bottom of the nanostructure finally re-balances the electric field generated at the tip [8,11]. The conduction is possible only when the top electrode is in contact Number of PublicationsPDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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