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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 14 of 35 and current of 0.6 μA at a power density of ~10.4 mW/cm3 [88]. Later in the same year, Zhu et al. gave a proper explanation for the TENG-based power conversion utilizing polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and Kapton as triboelectric materials [98]. These new types of robust nanogenerators produce a maximum open circuit voltage of 110 V, and the instantaneous power density reached up to 31.2 mW/cm3. Wang et al. (2012) designed an arc-shaped triboelectric nanogenerator using polymer thin film and a thin metal film and studied the working using finite element analysis. The designed arc-shaped generator [98] reached a power output of 230 V, 15.5 μA/cm2, and 128 mW/cm3. Polydimethylsiloxane is considered one of the suitable materials for TENG applications because of its distinct properties like flexibility, transparency, high negative polarity, and easy fabrication. Zhu et al. (2013), based on contact separation mode, developed a TENG using nanoparticle-enhanced polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and gold (Au) thin film, which reached a record high voltage of ~1200 V, instantaneous power output of 1.2 W, power density of 313 W/m2, with an average output of 132.1 mW [99]. Yun et al., in their work, exposed the PDMS to ultraviolet-ozone and then sprinkled with NaOH solution to get a triboelectric voltage of 49.3 V and 1.16 μA, respectively [100]. This output is found to be 15 times larger than the TENG using fresh PDMS. Hu et al. (2013) designed a vertical contact TENG integrated with a 3D spiral structure that gave a maximum power output of 2.76 W/m2 on a load of 6 MΩ at a resonant frequency of 30 Hz [101]. A harmonic-resonator-based TENG has been designed as an active vibration sensor, which was coupled with nanomaterials modifications. When a vibration with frequency from 2 to 200 Hz with the considerable working frequency of 13.4 Hz is applied, it produces a uniform quasi-sinusoidal output of 284.7 V, a current of 76.8 μA, with a peak power density of 726.1 mW/m2 [102]. Usually, a nanogenerator generates high output voltage and low output power, so in order to improve the instantaneous power output of the TENG, Cheng et al. (2013) devised a nanogenerator based on an off–on–off contact switching during the mechanical triggering that largely reduces the duration of charging/discharging process, so the pulse of the instantaneous power output improves without compromising the output voltage. The output current and voltage reaches as high as 0.53 A and 142 W at a load of 500 Ω [103]. The power current and power density reach as high as 1325 A/m2 and 3.6 × 105 W/m2, respectively. As a solution for lower power output in TENGs, 3D integrated multilayered TENGs were designed later in 2014 by Yang et al. In this type of TENG, the output of individual TENGs are synchronized to achieve a maximized instantaneous power output [104]. This 3D TENG has a multilayered structure with acrylic supporting substrates. PTFE nanowires are used as triboelectric materials, and aluminum and copper are used as electrodes and contact surfaces. The synchronized 3D TENG produces a short circuit current of 1.14 mA and an open-circuit voltage of 303 V with a power density of 104.6 Wm−2, which is capable of lighting 20 spotlights (0.6 W each) and a white G 16 globe light. Lin et al. [105] studied the relationship between the motion of a single water drop on to the water TENG and proposed a sequential contact-electrification and electrostatic-induction process to understand the working mechanism of it. The TENG is made out of nanostructured PTFE thin film and PMMA as substrate layer coated with Cu electrode. The TENG is based on a single electrode mode. When a 30 μL water drop hits the TENG, it can achieve a peak voltage of 9.3 V and a peak current of 17 μA. A maximum power output of 145 μW is obtained when the generator is connected to a resistor of resistance 5 MΩ. The study also proved that the superhydrophobic nature of the PTFE film is responsible for the high output. Yong et al. [106] demonstrated a wind-rolling triboelectric nanogenerator that generates electricity from wind as a lightweight triboelectric sphere rotates along a vortex whistle substrate. A single unit of this TENG generates an open-circuit voltage of 11.2 V and closed-circuit current of 1.86 μA. The output power is also enhanced through multiple electrode patterns as well as by increasing the number triboelectric spheres inside the nanogenerator. In 2017, Chen et al. came up with an ultra-flexible 3D TENG manufactured by unique hybrid UV 3D printing [107]. The TENG makes use of printed composite resin parts and ionic hydrogel as anPDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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