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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 15 of 35 electrification layer and electrode. A decent output of 10.98 W/m3 and 0.65 mC/m3 is obtained at a low frequency of ~1.3 Hz. Mallineni et al. (2018) successfully harvested mechanical energy via a 3D printed wireless triboelectric nanogenerator using graphene polylactic acid nanocomposite and Teflon as triboelectric surfaces [97]. When actuated by simple hand motions, this TENG generated a record high output voltage of 2 kV with instantaneous peak power up to 70 mW. This steady voltage output enables the transmission of the electric field over a distance of 3 m wirelessly to charge a capacitor. The improvement of TENGs output performance has always been a challenging issue in the progress of TENG. Theoretically, the energy conversion of TENG is 85%, but so far in practice, it has not yet been achieved [96,108]. Designing a new working mode and enlarging the frictional triboelectric surface area and the frequency can significantly influence the output performance of the TENGs [109]. Based on this, Feng et al. (2018) came up with an innovative TENG based on biodegradable leaf and leaf powder, which gives 15 μA current and 430 V under 5 Hz contact mode [96]. In the same device, poly-L-lysine (PLL) is applied to modify the leaf powder, which enhances the output performance as high as 60 μA and 1000 V. A conductive double-sided carbon tape composed of carbon powder was proposed as electrodes for TENGs by Shi et al. [110] in 2018 for higher output power density. PDMS and polyamide 6 were used as a tribo-frictional layer, owing to a strong interaction between the carbon electrode, and the tribo-layer demonstrates a peak output voltage of ~1760 V, short circuit current of ~240 mA/m2, and power density of ~120 W/m2. The output performance is found to be much higher than TENGs based on aluminum electrodes. It was also found that when the polyvinyl chloride was treated with CF4, the performance of TENG was increased [111]. A newly designed TENG with integrated rhombic gridding improves the power output performance, which is based on the hybridization of both contact separation and sliding electrification mode [112]. Piezo-hybrid-enhanced triboelectric nanogenerators fabricated by electrospinning silk fibroin and PVDF nanofibres showed outstanding electric output performance with a power density of 3.1 W/m2 [113]. Inspired by the principle of lightning rods, utilizing electrostatic discharge to improve the TENGs performance was first proposed by Zhai et al. [114]. The different needle structure is used to produce the electrostatic discharge and transform the enormous potential into free charges. To maintain the stability and reliability of the electrostatic discharge process, a set of microdisplacement platform and argon encapsulation technology is used during the assembly. A TENG has been developed by mimicking the characteristics of kelp to harness wave energy [115]. They are made of flexible materials and consist of vertically free-standing polymer strips. Every single strip could sway independently to cause a contact–separation with the neighboring strips when the TENG vibrates in waves. An output current of 10 μA and voltage of 260 V can be given by the single unit with a power density of 25 μW/cm2. Control of dielectric constant fluorinated polymers [116], chemical modification of polymer surfaces (tribo-layer) [117], multilayered fiber-based TENG [112,118], and grating structures [108,119] were used in the TENG to enhance the output performance. In 2018, researchers demonstrated flexible triboelectric nanogenerators using a new family of two-dimensional layered transition metal carbides and nitrides called metallic MXene [120–123]. The most widely used material in manufacturing TENG is PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) but PTFE-based TENGs are often restricted to single electrode mode-based operation, and also its property of high thermal and chemical stability and lower surface energy hinders the easy fabrication of metallic coating over it. The MXene materials have the ability to inherent the conductivity as well as the other limitations of PTFE in fabricating TENGs. Dong et al. [120] demonstrated a flexible MXene TENG capable of harvesting electricity from the motion of human muscle movement. MXene was used as the triboelectric material, and the PET-ITO layer was used as the electrode in the TENG. The study also proves that the MXene-based flexible TENG produces high open circuit voltage ranging between 500–600 V with an instantaneous peak power output up to 0.5–0.65 mW. Jiang et al. [121] developed a flexible single electrode mode TENG with integrated MXene-based micro-supercapacitors. The supercapacitors are used to store the energy in standby mode and supply power when active.PDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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