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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 16 of 35 The MXene-based micro-supercapacitors supplies a capacitance of 23 mF/cm2 with 95% capacitance retention after 10,000 charge–discharge cycles. This helps the TENG to achieve a maximum output power of 7.8 μW/cm2. These types of TENGs opened new possibilities in wearable and implantable sensors networks. A direct current TENG was designed without using a rectifier by Luo et al. in 2019 [124]. This TENG functions by using air break down, which was once a negative effect in TENGs [125–127]. This type of DC-TENG is used in making flexible nanogenerators because of its simple structure. Kang et al. [128] in 2019 systematically studied the surface charge potential of metal nanowire-polymer matrix hybrid layer and its effects for the performance enhancement of TENG. Through experimentation, it has been found that increasing the density of the metal nanowire embedded in the polymer matrix resulted in the transfer of more charges from metal nanowires the polymer film. The efficiency of TENG drops as the temperature increases [129] and this challenge of operating TENG at high temperatures was addressed by Xu et al. [130]. The temperature of the TENG was raised to 673 K, and the dominant deterring factor thermionic emission is prevented by using preannealing. This study improves the application of TENGs in high-temperature environments like outer space, jet engine nozzles, and geothermal energy. 4.2. Review of Applications of TENG 4.2.1. Self-Powered Sensors There are wireless TENGs with very high output performance that have applications in actuating smart home application like lights, temperature sensors, burglar alarms, smart windows, garage doors, etc., [97]. The development of TENGs contributes largely to the current expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous robotics, virtual reality, and human–machine interfacing ecosystem [131]. The TENG-based intelligent keyboard [131,132], touch screen [133], E-skin [134,135], acoustic sensor [136], and artificial muscle [137] can be a strong encomium and a paragon shift in the existing human interface ecosystem. TENG made out of polyamide 6,6 (PA) film or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) film, is applied to an active sensor for detecting water or ethanol in gas or liquid phase [138]. The authors [139] designed a flexible cylindrical spiral type TENG (S-TENG) and a self-powered measuring tapeline (sensor) based on the TENG that was capable of generating open circuit voltage up to ~250 V. The S-TENG with such an enhanced power output can power display devices and sensors, thus eliminating the need of batteries. The 3D stacked TENG is successfully integrated inside a ball (basketball, football, baseball) of diameter 3 inches to harvest wasted kinetic energy when people play ball sports [104]. The experimental study showed a constant voltage of 5 V even after 3000 working cycles; hence it can be applied in self-powered sensors. The authors [140] proposed an on-vehicle magnetic triboelectric nanogenerator mounted on the wheel hub of a tire for self-powered tire pressure monitoring sensors, barometric pressure sensor, and wireless sensor nodes. This type of TENG can deliver an open circuit voltage of 316 V at the rotation speed of 100 rpm. TENGs integrated with vehicle tires convert frictional energy into electricity and also harness the static electricity, which hinders the wide-scale application of silica-filled green tires [141]. The newly fabricated DC-TENG can find its application in flexible electronics and self-charging power systems [124]. TENGs were successfully integrated with the shoes and backpacks to harvest the human walking energy [107,142]. Liu et al. developed a hybridized nanogenerator by combining a TENG and an electromagnetic nanogenerator, which can be embedded into wearable shoes of soldiers as an energy cell [111]. On the other hand, TENG was successfully integrated into a backpack, which can harvest vibration energy from human walking [112]. This device can act as a mobile power source for engineers and explorers. Zhong et al. (2012) demonstrated an arc-shaped flexible nanogenerator that can generate power from finger typing. The output power of the TENG device reached as high as ~4.125 mV, which is sufficient to light 50 commercial LEDs connected in series. This proves its application inPDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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