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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 18 of 35 An angle-shaped TENG overcame the problem of insufficient contact of the triboelectric layers with enhanced power output [176]. A farm structure TENG harvests low wind energy into electrical energy [177]. Other than these, the leaf-based [96] and free-standing flag type [178] TENGs can be used to harvest wind energy in smart cities [179]. 4.2.4. Solar Photovoltaic Technology A highly transparent triboelectric nanogenerator has been developed by Liang et al. to harvest electrostatic energy from flowing water. The TENG is made up of a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) electrode and a PTFE film. For high transparency, the PTFE film was prepared at a thickness of less than 1 μm. The antireflection coating is also used in the TENG to increase the transmittance so that they can be integrated into solar cells, building glass, and vehicle glass. Upon the impact of water, this transparent TENG produces a peak output voltage of 10 V and a current density of 2 μA/cm2. The output power density reached 11.56 mW/m2 when connected to 0.5 MΩ resistors. Later in 2014, Zheng et al. [180] successfully integrated the transparent TENG in solar cells by replacing the existing protection layer without affecting the performance of the first solar cell. The TENG is made out of a specially processed superhydrophobic PTFE thin film, an indium tin oxide (ITO), and a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) layer. The superhydrophobicity of PTFE film enhances the automatic cleaning of the solar cell surface. The experiment showed that when the dripping water rate is adjusted at 0.116 mL/s due to the sequential process of contact electrification [181] and electrostatic induction, the TENG produces an open circuit voltage of 30 V and a short-circuit current density of 4.2 mA/m2. The experiment also showed that as the rate of water dripping increases, the magnitude of the current peaks decreases while the density of the current peaks increases. A water drop TENG with a surface area of 614 m2 can light a lamp of 10 W power. Liu et al. integrated a silicon solar cell with triboelectric nanogenerator using a mutual electrode for harvesting energy from both sunlight and raindrops [182]. A heterojunction silicon solar cell is used, and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is used as a triboelectric layer combined with PEDOT: PSS as an electrode. The imprinting pattern of the DVD was transferred onto the PDMS film and PEDOT: PSS layer which helps in achieving a low reflection ratio that enhances light harvesting without affecting the output voltage and power conversion efficiency. This integrated system converts both solar energy and raindrops into electrical power with higher outputs of ~33 nA and 2.14 V with a maximum average power density of 1.74 mW/m2. For the first time, Zheng et al. in 2015, developed a hybrid solar panel that simultaneously generates power from sunlight, raindrops, and wind using TENG [183]. A waterproof fabric-based multifunctional hybrid triboelectric nanogenerator was developed recently to harvest energy from raindrops, wind, and human motions [184]. This newly developed TENG is as flexible as clothes, making it suitable for wearable technologies. These types of TENGs changes the traditional way of solar energy harvesting and provides a new vision for all weather solar photovoltaic technologies. High humidity and contamination-resistant triboelectric nanogenerators with superhydrophobic interface [185] can be sandwiched with solar PV cells so that the PV cell can be dust resistant. Significant improvements in the TENGs are illustrated in Table 5. In Table 5, the outputs achieved in TENGs over the years were compared without considering the size of the nanomaterial or the quantity of force applied, which also determines the output power.PDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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