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specific constituents also must be managed to protect the ecosystem. Table 10 outlines constituents for aquatic life requirements and includes values for both chronic and acute toxicity, which are commonly dictated by the water hardness (Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment 2010). 5.3.5 Rangeland Restoration Rangelands consist of shrubs and grasses and covers approximately 50% of the land surface in the United States. The most common use for rangelands is livestock grazing. Overstocking and drought are two of the causes of rangeland degradation. Degradation of rangeland also is caused by improper use of vehicles and other industrial activity and changing weather patterns resulting in drought. Produced water can be applied to rangeland to help the natural biotic community to reestablish vegetation and to increase the response of the native species (Fox and Burnett 2002) . SAR is an important criterion for using produced water for rangeland restoration. Similarly to irrigation water, high SAR values can further damage soils; therefore, treatment may be required for some produced water sources to be used for rangeland restoration. 5.3.6 Industrial Uses 5.3.6.1 Reuse in Oil and Gas Operations Reuse of produced water on site at oil and gas operation includes multiple applications, such as well drilling, hydraulic fracturing, secondary oil recovery, and sustaining aquifer pressure, which require large water volumes. Use of fresh water supplies in these practices may be minimized by treating and recycling produced water resources. Well head generation makes the resource available on site lowering transportation and trucking costs. Therefore, the market for treating produced water on site to meet water quality standards for use becomes economical as costs are compared to the cost of trucking fresh water on site at the volumes required for these operations. Water treated at a produced water collection point in a well field represents a local source of water commonly in closer proximity to most wells than fresh water sources. Although many onsite uses exist, two uses, well development through hydraulic fracturing and secondary recovery through enhanced oil recovery techniques, are described here in more detail. Fracturing Water.—Unconventional resources commonly exist in subsurface formations with low permeability. Stimulation, in the form of hydraulic fracturing, is required to enhance permeability and allow for commercial production of the hydrocarbon resource. Hydraulic fracturing is the creation or extension of natural fractures in the formation material. Fractures increase the formation permeability as gas may flow unabated through these conduits to the wellhead. To create or extend naturally occurring fractures, pressurized hydraulic 33PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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