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fluid is pumped into the geologic formation through the well bore into the target formation. When the pressure exceeds the rock strength, the fluids open or enlarge fractures that can extend several hundred feet away from the well. Current fracturing processes use “Slick Water” or “Light Sand” fracturing, which uses larger volumes of water than historically used to complete the process (R.W. Harden & Associates 2007). This hydraulic fluid is composed mainly of water and a proppant material, such as sand or ceramic beads, and is used to maintain openings after fracturing has concluded (R.W. Harden & Associates 2007, #8). Fracturing fluids can be up to 99% water (USEPA 2010). Water used for fracturing (frac water) is usually fresh water containing low salt concentrations and low concentrations of sparingly soluble salt products such as barium and silica. Lower soluble salts are important considerations because precipitation of these salts in the formation would block fractures and lower formation permeability. Numerous chemical additives also are present in the hydraulic fluid mixture at low volume percentages as compared to the water/proppant mixture. Specific chemical additives can include friction reducers, biocides, and scale inhibitors. Frac water is usually trucked onsite to the well head. Limited fresh water reservoirs are available onsite that provide sufficient quality and volume for the frac water mixture. Deep horizontal wells can require anywhere from 2– 10 million gallons of frac water to complete the well hydraulic fracturing (ProchemTech, 2008 #3). In the Barnett Shale in Texas, wells require 1.2 to 3.5 million gallons of water for hydraulically fracturing, usually spanning an interval of about one month per gas well (R.W. Harden & Associates 2007). After frac water is injected, the internal pressure of the geologic formation causes the injected fracturing fluids to rise to the surface and recovered fracturing fluid is referred to as flowback water (USEPA 2010). Not all fracturing fluids injected during hydraulic fracturing are recovered. Estimates of the fluids recovered range from 15–80% of the volume injected depending on the site (USEPA 2010). Hydraulic fracturing can occur repeatedly throughout the well lifetime. Some companies reuse flowback to hydraulically fracture more than one well as a way of conserving water and recycling the fluids (USEPA 2010). Flowback water represents only a portion of the water injected into the formation, making this option sustainable only as long as the water quantity is sufficient for continued fracturing. Unlike the intermittent production of flowback water from fracturing operations, produced water is generated continuously as long as gas production is occurring. Treated produced water used to supplement water quantities for hydraulic fracturing lowers the use of fresh water sources for well development and creates a more sustainable water use cycle within the well drilling operation. Enhanced Oil Recovery.—Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is used to extract additional oil in place in a reservoir, since only 20–40% of the total amount of oil in place can be recovered by standard extraction methods (Petroleum Technology Transfer Council). A number of EOR techniques exist as secondary recovery 36PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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