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mechanisms. Water injection into an aquifer will displace oil towards the production well. EOR involving the injection of water and carbon dioxide into depleted oil fields can extract up to 10% of the remaining oil. Meanwhile, chemical EOR uses a fluid injection consisting of chemicals that promote the hydrocarbon movement through the formation to aid in recovering more products from a well (Petroleum Technology Transfer Council). Volumes of water used depend on the reservoir, while water quality concerns for injection include lowering divalent cation and silica levels to minimize scaling. Ten barrels of water are produced for each barrel of crude oil during EOR, which can be treated and re-used for further EOR (Petroleum Technology Transfer Council). Produced water generated at alternative well sites during well production may be used and treated for EOR applications. 5.3.6.2 Dust Suppression Produced water is often generated in arid regions that are dust-prone. Produced water can be used for dust suppression on unpaved lease roads in oil and gas fields. Typically, the spray of produced water for dust suppression is well controlled so that the water is not applied beyond the road boundaries or within buffer zones around stream crossings and near buildings (Veil). Produced water has also been used for dust suppression in surface coal mining operations. 5.3.6.3 Fire Protection Produced water could potentially be used for wild-land firefighting or municipal fire hydrants and sprinkler systems. Often drinking water is used for fire fighting, however, water quality requirements for water used in fire fighting are not stringent, and the use of alternative water sources does not adversely affect drinking water supplies. In order to use produced water for fire protection, the water supply needs to be easily accessible and contain a sufficient volume. In 2002, CBM produced water stored in impoundments from the San Juan Basin was used effectively to fight a wildfire near Durango, Colorado (ALLConsulting 2003). 5.3.6.4 Cooling Towers Cooling towers for powerplants required large volumes of water. As water demands increase, alternative water sources are sought for use in cooling towers. In some cases, it may be possible to use produced water for a portion of the cooling water demand at powerplants located near produced water generation (V eil). 5.3.10 Domestic In some cases, produced water is of sufficiently high quality that it could be considered for municipal drinking water (table 11). 37PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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