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produced water. Salinity in conventional resources is due mainly to dissolved sodium and chloride, with fewer contributions from calcium, magnesium, and potassium (Fakhru’l-Razi et al. 2009). Meanwhile, Rice and Nuccio (2000) reported that TDS concentrations at CBM wellheads ranged from 370 to 1,940 mg/L, generally a result of increased sodium and bicarbonate. To verify the existence of significant cation and anion variations, the USGS and COGCC databases were used to create cation and anion makeup compositions for comparison of conventional and unconventional resources. These cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium) and anions (bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate) were present for most wells in both the USGS and COGCC databases. In figure 13, conventional and unconventional produced water compositions are compared through pie charts relating the percentage concentrations of major cations and anions. These charts are separated for comparison purposes with conventional well compositions on the top and unconventional compositions on the bottom. The values plotted in these charts represent average cation and anion values for all basins in each database category. Sodium is the dominant cation for water produced from both conventional and unconventional wells. For conventional wells, sodium makes up 81% of the cations, but calcium also represents 14% of the cation makeup, while magnesium and potassium account for 5%. The unconventional wells are almost completely sodium dominated with calcium, magnesium, and potassium representing 5% of the cations. Distinict differences can be observed between the anion makeup in conventional and unconventional wells. Conventional wells are mainly chloride anions, which represent 97% of the total anions present. In unconventional wells, bicarbonate makes up 66% of the anions, while chloride makes up 32%. Dominance of chloride in conventional wells may be attributed to marine influence in the hydrocarbon depositional environment as aforementioned during the discussion of salt concentration. Bicarbonate concentrations, however, are likely attributes of subsurface anaerobic methanogensis or the creation of biogenic methane, which result in increased bicarbonate concentrations in CBM wells resulting in the precipitation of calcium and magnesium from solution (Van Voast 2003). Low concentrations of sulfates also indicate that the coal reservoir has undergone, or is undergoing, methanogenesis (Rice, Flores et al. 2008). This subsurface process dictates anion dominance in the unconventional CBM water quality. Although cations and anions makeups provide insight into the relative makeup of well water quality, the dominant salt is also an important descriptive factor. This descriptive factor differs from the cation and anion contributions previously presented. For example, although the average chloride concentrations may indicate chloride as 32% of the anion makeup in unconventional wells, dominant salt type of a well may not directly reflect these values. The dominant salt type represents the salt formed by the dominant anion and cation for each individual 46PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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