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dominated by each type of salt. The salt types include, in clockwise order on the pie charts, sodium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulfate, calcium bicarbonate, and other as any remaining salts unlisted. Observed from figure 15, sodium chloride is the dominant salt in nearly all of the Western United States basins. The Big Horn and Sweetgrass Arch basins are the two main exceptions. The Big Horn basin has the largest makeup of sodium sulfate type waters; although the basin exhibits a variety of dominant salt types. Sodium bicarbonate is the dominant salt type in the Sweetgrass Arch, similar to the unconventional CBM basins. Kansas, Anadarko, and Permian basins show the least amount of subsequent salt types with most wells in those basins exhibiting sodium chloride type waters. The most common salts following sodium chloride across the Western United States basins include sodium bicarbonate and sodium sulfate. Dominant salt type is an important descriptive feature for produced water quality; however, other inorganic and organic constituents also exist at measurable concentrations in produced water. 6.2 Inorganic Constituents Produced water has high concentrations of dissolved constituents that build up during extended contact with formation material. Produced water contains some of the chemical characteristics of the formation waters originally associated with the formation environment as well as manipulations to the water by subsurface processes (Van Voast 2003). Produced water is in contact with the formation environment for centuries, suggesting that mineral characteristics of the formation material will be reflected in the produced water quality (Veil 2004). These reflections can be in the form of mineral types, such as carbonate or silicate systems, but also can include minor heavy metals present in the subsurface including arsenic, lead, organic constituents, and naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM). This section focuses on the inorganic characteristics of produced water, specifically commonly occurring, or major ions and lower concentration inorganic and organic constituents or minor ions. 6.2.1 Major Ions Based on the salt composition observations from the previous sections sodium is consistently present in both conventional and unconventional produced water types. There is potentional, due to produced water composition, that high ranges of SAR likely are associated with each water type. SAR represents the ratio of specific cations to one another, focusing on the relationship of sodium with calcium and magnesium. The higher the calcium and magnesium concentrations with respect to the sodium, the lower the value of SAR becomes. High TDS concentrations associated with conventional wells translate to a high SAR when sodium is the dominant cation in the wells. Although unconventional 49PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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