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Capital costs can be near to $0.01 per gallon per day (gpd), and O&M costs can be approximately $0.05 per kilogallon (kgal) (>$0.01 per bbl). No waste is generated from oxidation processes. No pretreatment is required for oxidation. Solid separation post-treatment might be required to remove oxidized particles. Chemical metering pumps are required for dosing. Some equipment may be required to generate the oxidant onsite, and chemical costs may be high. 7.1.7 Settling Settling can be achieved using a pond or a basin. In this process, particulates are removed by gravity settling. Settling ponds require a large footprint and environmental mitigation to protect wildlife. The volume of the settling basin required depends on the hydraulic residence time required for the desired level of contaminant removal. Settling ponds most likely will be used in combination with other treatment processes. There are no chemical requirements, but chemicals can be used to enhance sedimentation. Infrastructure requirements include liners. Settling ponds are used to remove large particulates from water sources. The degree of particle removal and size of particles removed depends on the water detention time in the pond. 7.1.8 Air Stripping Air stripping primarily is used for removing volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), oxidizing contaminants such as iron and manganese, improving taste, or removing odor. Air stripping is an USEPA BAT for some organic chemicals (VOCs) including benzene, toluene, xylene, tri/tetrachloroethylene, trihalomethanes, vinyl chloride and many others. Air stripping is the process of transferring a contaminant from the liquid phase to the gas phase. In the air stripping process, air and water are contacted in a packed column designed to maximize the contact surface area between the water and air. Air stripping performance depends on factors such as: • Characteristics of the volatile material (partial pressure, Henry’s constant, gas-transfer resistance, etc.) (AWWA 2005, Water Treatment Plant Design) • Water and ambient air temperature • Turbulence in gaseous and liquid phases • Area-to-volume ratio • Exposure time Appropriate design of the packed column is necessary to ensure the desired level of contaminant removal based on the process operating temperature and the 76PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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