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initiated when backwashing and chemically enhanced backwash are not effective in restoring desirable performance (Reclamation 2003). Factors affecting membrane selection are: • Cost • Percent recovery • Percent rejection • Raw water characteristics • Pretreatment Factors affecting performance are: • Raw water characteristics • Pressure • Temperature • Regular monitoring and maintenance A self-backwashing 100-μm strainer is often used to protect the membranes and moderate particulate loading. Depending on the raw water quality, a coagulant may be added to form pin-sized floc and help improve rejection (Reclamation 2003). 7.1.13.1 Ceramic MF/UF Membrane Ceramic UF and MF membranes are made from oxides, nitrides, or carbides of metals such as aluminum, titanium, or zirconium (Mulder 2003). Ceramic membranes are much more resilient than polymeric membranes and are mechanically strong, chemically and thermally stable, and can achieve high flux rates. Typically, a tubular configuration is used with an inside-out flow path, where the feed water flows inside the membrane channels and permeates through the support structure to the outside of the module. These membranes typically are comprised of at least two layers—a porous support layer and a separating layer. Ceramic membranes are capable of removing particulates, organic matter, oil and grease, and metal oxides. Ceramic membranes alone cannot remove dissolved ions and dissolved organics. Precoagulation, injection of a chemical coagulant upstream from the membrane, improves removal efficiencies of dissolved organic carbon and smaller particulates. As with conventional UF and MF, a strainer or cartridge filter is necessary as pretreatment for ceramic membranes. Numerous research studies have been conducted on using ceramic membranes to treat oil-containing wastewater and produced water (Faibish and Cohen 2001; Faibish and Cohen 2001; Konieczny, Bodzek et al. 2006; Lobo, Cambiella et al. 82PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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