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discharging to surface waters. Waste streams being discharged to surface waters typically are processed for turbidity removal through settling ponds or other treatment systems. CIP waste is neutralized and usually combined with the rest of the waste. Capital cost for polymeric UF systems vary based on the size of the plant and feed water quality. Approximate capital costs will be near $1–2 per gpd, and O&M costs will be approximately $1–2 per kgal. Bierle et al. performed a three-pass UF membrane pilot study to treat produced water at a temperature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) to reduce the total organic carbon concentration of the produced water from 29 mg/L to 11.9 mg/L (Bierle). 7.2 Desalination Technologies Desalination technologies are necessary to lower the total dissolved solids concentration and the concentration of ions that are too high for the desired beneficial use of co-produced water. Desalination technologies fall into the following categories: membrane, thermal, and alternative technologies. Desalination technologies, combined together and called hybrid technologies, are often employed to reduce the energy cost of the process or to enhance the product water recovery. The following membrane processes were evaluated: reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, and electrodialysis (ED). Hybrid membrane processes considered are two pass nanofiltration, dual RO with chemical precipitation, dual RO with HEROTM, dual RO with seeded slurry precipitation, and high efficiency electrodialysis. The thermal desalination technologies included in this report are: membrane distillation, multistage flash distillation, multieffect distillation, vapor compression, and freeze-thaw evaporation. Commercial processes evaluated are as follows: CDM HERO process, Veolia OPUS, Altela Rain, and 212 Resources. The technologies were evaluated based on the whether they are an emerging technology or an established technology and whether they previously have been employed for treatment of produced water. The TDS range of applicability of these technologies and their salt rejection and product water recoveries are also presented. Specific sodium, organic, and heavy metal rejection capabilities are also presented. The technologies then were compared qualitatively based on the following criteria: pretreatment requirements, chemical and energy requirements, maintenance requirements, ease of operation, cost, robustness, reliability, flexibility, mobility, modularity, volume of residuals generated, and the size of the plant or footprint. The qualitative technology assessment and comparison are presented in tabular format, see table 21. A very brief summary of the current status of each technology is described below; however, for more detailed information and a description of the technology, please refer to other sources. 84PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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