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Produced Water White Paper vi million bbl of water was produced each day worldwide. This volume represents about 77 billion bbl of produced water for the entire year. As part of this white paper, an effort was made to generate contemporary estimates of onshore produced water volume in the United States (for the year 2002). This was challenging in that many of the states did not have readily available volume information. The 2002 total onshore volume estimate of 14 billion bbl was derived directly from the applicable state oil and gas agencies or their websites, where data were available. If volume estimates were not available from a state agency or website, an estimated volume was calculated for that state by multiplying 2002 crude oil production by the average historic water-to-oil ratio for that state. The volume of produced water from oil and gas wells does not remain constant over time. The water-to-oil ratio increases over the life of a conventional oil or gas well. For such wells, water makes up a small percentage of produced fluids when the well is new. Over time, the percentage of water increases and the percentage of product declines. Lee et al. (2002) report that U.S. wells produce an average of more than 7 bbl of water for each barrel of oil. For crude oil wells nearing the end of their productive lives, water can comprise as much as 98% of the material brought to the surface. Wells elsewhere in the world average 3 bbl of water for each barrel of oil (Khatib and Verbeek 2003). Coal bed methane (CBM) wells, in contrast, produce a large volume of water early in their life, and the water volume declines over time. Many new CBM wells have been drilled and produced since the last national estimate was made via API’s 1995 study. CBM wells quickly produce much water but will not be counted through the estimation approach used in this white paper (2002 crude oil production ́ historical water-to-oil ratio). The actual total volume of produced water in 2002 is probably much higher than the estimated 14 billion bbl. Chapter 4 describes the federal and state regulatory requirements regarding discharge and injection. In 1988, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exempted wastes related to oil and gas exploration and production (including produced water) from the hazardous waste portions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Produced water disposal generally bifurcates into discharge and injection operations. Most onshore produced water is injected into Class II wells for either enhanced recovery or for disposal. Injection is regulated under the Underground Injection Control (UIC) program. The EPA has delegated UIC program authority to many states, which then regulate injection activities to ensure protection of underground sources of drinking water. Most offshore produced water is discharged under the authority of general permits issued by EPA regional offices. These permits are part of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). They include limits on oil and grease, toxicity, and other constituents. Under a few circumstances, onshore produced water can be discharged. Generally these discharges are from very small stripper oil wells, CBM wells, or from other wells in which the produced water is clean enough to be used for agricultural or wildlife purposes. Chapter 5 discusses numerous options for managing produced water. The options are grouped into those that minimize the amount of produced water that reaches the surface,PDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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