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Produced Water White Paper 7 and propionic acid, acetone, and methanol. In some produced waters, the concentration of these components is greater than 5,000 ppm. Due to their high solubility, the organic solvent used in oil and grease analysis extracts virtually none of them, and therefore, despite their large concentrations in produced water, they do not contribute significantly to the oil and grease measurements (Ali et al. 1999). Partially soluble components include medium to higher molecular weight hydrocarbons (C6 to C15). They are soluble in water at low concentrations, but are not as soluble as lower molecular weight hydrocarbons. They are not easily removed from produced water and are generally discharged directly to the ocean. They contribute to the formation of sheen, but the primary concern involves toxicity. These components include aliphatic and aromatic carboxylic acids, phenols, and aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Aromatic hydrocarbons are substances consisting of carbon and hydrogen in benzene-like cyclic systems. PAHs are hydrocarbon molecules with several cyclic rings. Formed naturally from organic material under high pressure, PAHs are present in crude oil. Naphthalene is the most simple PAH, with two interconnected benzene rings and is normally present in higher concentrations than other PAHs. (In Norwegian fields, for example, naphthalenes comprise 95% or more of the total PAHs in offshore produced water.) PAHs range from relatively “light” substances with average water solubility to “heavy” substances with high liposolubility and poor water solubility. They increase biological oxygen demand, are highly toxic to aquatic organisms, and can be carcinogenic to man and animals. All are mutagenic and harmful to reproduction. Heavy PAHs bind strongly to organic matter (e.g., on the seabed) contributing to their persistency (Danish EPA 2003). Higher molecular weight PAHs are less water soluble and will be present mainly in or associated with dispersed oil. Aromatic hydrocarbons and alkylated phenols are perhaps the most important contributors to toxicity (Frost et al. 1998). Alkylated phenols are considered to be endocrine disruptors, and hence have the potential for reproductive effects (Frost et al. 1998). However, phenols and alkyl phenols can be readily degraded by bacterial and photo-oxidation in seawater and marine sediments (Stephenson 1992). A greater understanding is needed of the chemistry involved in the production and toxicity of soluble compounds. A Petroleum Environmental Research Forum (PERF) project is under way to characterize and evaluate water-soluble organics to help understand the production of these substances. The results may help develop means to reduce production of such organics (McFarlane et al. 2002). 2.2.1.3 Treatment Chemicals Treatment chemicals posing the greatest concerns for aquatic toxicity include biocides, reverse emulsion breakers, and corrosion inhibitors. However, these substances may undergo reactions that reduce their toxicities before they are discharged or injected. For example, biocides react chemically to lose their toxicity, and some corrosion inhibitors may partition into the oil phase so that they never reach the final discharge stream (Glickman 1998). Nonetheless, some of these treatment chemicals can be lethal at levelsPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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