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Produced Water White Paper 9 2.2.1.8 pH Reduced pH can disturb the oil/water separation process and can impact receiving waters when discharged. Many chemicals used in scale removal are acidic. 2.2.1.9 Sulfates Sulfate concentration controls the solubility of several other elements in solution, particularly barium and calcium (Utvik 2003). 2.2.1.10 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) NORM originates in geological formations and can be brought to the surface with produced water. The most abundant NORM compounds in produced water are radium- 226 and radium 228, which are derived from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium associated with certain rocks and clays in the hydrocarbon reservoir (Utvik 2003). As the water approaches the surface, temperature changes cause radioactive elements to precipitate. The resulting scales and sludges may accumulate in water separation systems. In the North Sea, where ambient concentrations of Ra-226 are 0.027- 0.04 Bq/L, measured concentrations in produced waters range from 0.23 to 14.7 Bq/L (Utvik 2003). Radium contamination of produced water has generated enough concern that some states have placed additional requirements on National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits that limit the amount of radium that can be discharged. Compounding the NORM concern is that chemical constituents in many produced waters can interfere with conventional analytical methods, and, as a result, radium components can be lost, leading to a false negative result for samples that may contain significant amounts of NORM (Demorest and Wallace 1992). 2.2.2 Constituents in Produced Waters from CBM Production The mix of constituents that characterizes CBM produced waters differs from that characterizing conventional produced waters. This is not surprising, since produced water from oil production has been in direct contact with crude oil for centuries and is probably at a chemical equilibrium condition. In comparison, CBM water has been in direct contact with coal seams. Therefore, different compounds are likely to enter the water. Much of the CBM produced water may be put to beneficial use, but some of the constituents and their concentrations may limit the use of these waters in certain areas. The final determination of whether a CBM produced water can be used for agricultural purposes (generally irrigation or stock watering), for example, will depend not only on the quality of the produced water but also on the conditions of the receiving areas. These conditions include soil mineralogy and texture, amount of water applied, sensitivity of plant species, and the length of time the water has been stored in impoundments prior to use (ALL 2003). Some of the important characteristics of CBM produced water ofPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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