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Produced Water White Paper 19 these producing wells or convert them to injection wells so as not to impede the progression of the water front through the reservoir. - Insufficient produced water volume for water flooding – If insufficient produced water is available for water flooding, additional source waters must be obtained to augment the produced water injection. For a water flood operation to be successful, the water used for injection must be of a quality that will not damage the reservoir rock. In the past, freshwater was commonly used in water floods. Because of increasing scarcity, freshwater is typically no longer used as a viable source water for water flooding. Regardless of the source, the increased addition of this water to the reservoir will result in an increased volume of produced water. - Loss of mechanical integrity – Holes caused by corrosion or wear and splits in the casing caused by flaws, excessive pressure, or formation deformation can allow unwanted reservoir or aquifer waters to enter the well bore and be produced to the surface as produced water. - Subsurface communication problems – Near-well bore communication problems such as channels behind casing, barrier breakdowns, and completions into or near water can result in increased produced water volumes. Additionally, reservoir communication problems such as coning, cresting, channeling through higher permeability zones or fractures, and fracturing out of the hydrocarbon producing zone can also contribute to higher produced water volumes. Each of the above factors can greatly affect the volume of produced water that is ultimately managed during the life cycle of a well and project. With increased produced water volumes, the economic viability of a project becomes an issue, due to the loss of recoverable hydrocarbons, the added expense of lifting water versus hydrocarbons, the increased size and cost of water treating facilities and associated treatment chemicals, and the disposal cost of the water. With the consideration of water impacts to a project, proper planning and implementation can minimize these expenses or at least delay their impact. 3.3 Volume of Produced Water Generated Onshore in the U.S. According to the API website (www.api.org), exploration and production activities take place at nearly 900,000 separate locations in 33 states and on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS. Unfortunately, no single mechanism exists for tabulating the volume of produced water generated by the oil and gas industry. Although some states have started to track this information and have this information available electronically on their websites, most do not. The majority of states do track the volume of produced water that is injected, but do not track the volume of produced water that is managed in ways other than injection. Hence, produced water volume figures are generally available for enhanced recovery or disposal in injection wells, but these data are not typically readily available for the other management techniques such as:PDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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