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Produced Water White Paper 44 factors to be considered when designing and conducting a gel treatment. Some important considerations include: - The component ingredients: o Type of gel polymer (often a polyacrylamide polymer; also microbial products or lignosulfonate have been tried) o Type of crosslinking agent (metal ion or organic) o Fluid used to mix the gel (freshwater or produced water) - The properties of the gel (these may vary in several stages throughout gel treatment): o Concentration of polymer o Molecular weight of polymer o Degree of crosslinking o Viscosity (affects the size of cracks or fractures that can be penetrated at a given pressure; can inject as pre-mixed gel or as gelant) o Density (if density is too heavy, gel can sink too far into the water layer and lose effectiveness) o Set-up time (this determines how far into the cracks or fractures the gel will penetrate) - The treatment procedure: o Preparation of well before treatment o Volume of gel used o Injection pressure o Injection rate. In the United States, most of the polymer gel treatments are made in wells producing from fractured carbonate or dolomitic formations that operate under a natural water drive (Reynolds et al. 2002). Mack (2003) and Reynolds et al. (2002) suggest the following criteria for selecting candidate wells for gel treatments: - Wells already shut-in or near the end of their economic life, - Significant remaining mobile oil in place, - High water-oil ratio, - High producing fluid level, - Declining oil and flat water production, - Wells associated with active natural water drive, and - High-permeability contrast between oil- and water-saturated rock. The results of many successful gel treatment jobs have been reported in the literature. Seright et al. (2001) report on 274 gel treatments conducted in naturally fractured carbonate formations. The median water-to-oil ratio (WOR) was 82 before the treatment, 7 shortly after the treatment, and 20 a year or two after treatment. The oil production increased following treatment and remained above pretreatment levels for 1 to 2 years. Thomas et al. (2000) report that an initial investment of $231,000 for gel treatmentsPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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