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Produced Water White Paper 51 wells could be potentially used for CBM produced water, but does not indicate if they are actually being used for that purpose. Brost (2002) describes an operation in the Kern River field of California in which a blend of produced water and treated groundwater is filtered then sent to the local water district for use in both irrigation and aquifer recharge. That paper offers no details on how the water is further treated or injected. 5.2.3 Use by Animals Some produced water is clean enough to be used directly or after some degree of treatment by animals (i.e., livestock or wildlife) as a source of drinking water or, in the case of fish and waterfowl, as habitat. This section describes several possible alternatives for beneficial reuse for animals. 5.2.3.1 Livestock Watering Livestock can tolerate a range of contaminants in their drinking water. At some concentrations, the animals, although still able to survive, will begin to show some impairment. ALL (2003) provides a table showing the total dissolved solids (TDS) levels that are appropriate for livestock watering. In general, animals can often tolerate a higher degree of TDS if they are gradually acclimated to the elevated levels. Water with TDS less than 1,000 ppm is considered to be an excellent source water. Water with TDS from 1,000 up to 7,000 ppm can be used for livestock but may cause some diarrhea (ALL 2003). Some CBM projects on ranch land have created impoundments or watering stations to provide CBM produced water as a drinking water source for livestock. ALL (2003) describes an example from the 7 Ranch near Gillette, Wyoming, in which livestock are watered by using small reservoirs and old heavy-vehicle tires as watering tanks. 5.2.3.2 Wildlife Watering and Habitat Some Rocky Mountain area CBM projects have created impoundments that collect and retain large volumes of produced water. In some cases, these may have surface areas of at least several acres. These impoundments provide a source of drinking water for wildlife and offer habitat for fish and waterfowl in an otherwise arid environment. It is important to make sure that the quality of the impounded water will not create health problems for the wildlife. The impoundments can also provide additional recreational opportunities for hunting, fishing, boating, and bird watching. 5.2.3.3 Aquaculture and Hydroponic Vegetable Culture Jackson and Myers (2002) report on greenhouse experiments to raise vegetables (not a use by animals, but placed in Section 5.2.3 for convenience) and fish using produced water or potable water as the water source. The system used a combination of hydroponic plant cultivation (no soil) and aquaculture. Tomatoes grown with produced water were smaller than those grown in potable water. The produced water tank grew aPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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