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Produced Water White Paper 52 larger weight of tilapia fish (Orechromis niuloticus/aureus), although some of the fish died. None of the fish in the potable water tank died. The tests showed that produced water could serve as a water source for vegetables and fish when other potable water sources are not available. 5.2.4 Irrigation of Crops Many parts of the United States and around the world have limited freshwater resources. Crop irrigation is the largest single use of freshwater in the United States, making up 39% of all freshwater withdrawn, or 150 billion gallons per day (USGS 1998). If produced water has low enough TDS and other characteristics, it can be a valuable resource for crop irrigation. ALL (2003) summarizes crop irrigation water quality requirements, noting that the three most critical parameters are salinity (affects crops), sodicity (affects soil), and toxicity (affects crops). Salinity is expressed as electrical conductivity in units of mmhos/cm or more currently in micro Siemens per cm (μS/cm). Crops have varying susceptibility to salinity; as salinity rises above a species-specific salinity threshold, crop yields decrease. Excess sodium can damage soils. Higher SAR values lead to soil dispersion and a loss of soil infiltration capability. When sodic soils are wet, they become sticky, and when dry, they form a crusty layer that is nearly impermeable. Paetz and Maloney (2002) describe an approach for treating CBM water to mitigate its salinity and sodicity problems so it can be used in a managed irrigation program. Some trace elements in produced water can cause harmful effects to plants when present in sufficient quantities. ALL (2003) suggests that the most common sources of plant toxicity are chloride, sodium, and boron. Another source of information on the effects of applying produced water to soils is a manual developed for the American Petroleum Institute on remediation of soils that had experienced produced water spills (API 1997). The authors of that manual have subsequently taught a series of workshops on the same subject. The manual is a detailed guide with much useful technical information on the impacts of salinity and sodium on soils and vegetation. Texas A&M University established a program to develop a portable produced water treatment system that can be moved into oil fields to convert produced water to potable or irrigation water. The goal is to produce water suitable for agricultural use (less than 500 mg/L of total dissolved solids and less than 0.05 mg/L of hydrocarbons). Such a system not only augments scarce water supplies in arid regions, but also provides an economic payback to operators that could allow the well to produce longer (Burnett et al. 2002; Burnett and Veil 2004).PDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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