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Figure 36 Potential Range of EV Battery Recycling Costs ..............................................................................83 Figure 37 Life Cycle Impacts per 1kWh of Power Delivered by Li-ion Battery Pack Cascaded Use...............88 Figure 38 Material Flow Assumptions on Which Energy Analysis is Based (Adapted from Richa et al) .......89 Figure 39 Estimated Environmental and Energy Impacts of the Reuse and Recycling of 1,000 EV Batteries in the US..........................................................................................................................................................90 Figure 40 Estimated Comparative Energy Impacts of EV Battery Reuse ......................................................91 Figure 41 GWP (Global Warming Potential) Impacts of Cascading Reuse of an EV Li-ion Battery................92 Figure 42 Estimated Energy Consumption to Produce LiMn2O4 Through EV Battery Recycling..................93 Figure 43 Total Estimated Energy Consumption (MJ/kg battery) Using Recycled vs Virgin Materials..........94 Figure 44 Net Energy Benefit of EV Battery Recycling (CED).........................................................................94 Figure 45 EV Battery Recycling Emissions from Different Recycling Processes for Cylindrical Cells (a,b) and Pouch Cells (c,d)..............................................................................................................................................97 Figure 46 Estimated Climate Impacts Through Production, Use and Recycling for Three Different Batteries for Nissan Leaf ................................................................................................................................................98 Figure 47 Estimated Climate Impacts of Tesla Original, 10Ah LFP and NMC Battery Designs Through Production, Use and Recycling .......................................................................................................................99 Figure 48 Estimated GHG and Sox Reductions for Cathode Materials Recovered from Li-ion Battery Recycling Processes Compared to Production from Virgin Materials ..........................................................101 Figure 49 Total Estimated Cradle-to-Gate GHG Emissions of an EV Battery Made from Virgin Materials with Recycled Cathode Materials, Recycled Aluminum and Recycled Active Material and Aluminum (2012) ...102 Figure 50 Schematic Showing Elements of HEV, PHEV and BEV ..................................................................164 Figure 51 Schematic Showing How a Li-ion Battery Works .........................................................................166 Figure 52 Metal Content of Li-ion Batteries by Cathode Chemistry, % of Total Metal Content by Weight by kWh ............................................................................................................................................................... 169 Figure 53 Li-ion Battery Cell - Cylindrical Design .........................................................................................171 Figure 54 Li-ion Battery Cell – Pouch Design ...............................................................................................172 Figure 55 Li-ion Battery Cell – Prismatic Design ..........................................................................................172 Figure 56 Chevrolet Bolt Battery Pack .........................................................................................................174 Figure 57 Pouch Cells Used in Chevrolet Bolt Battery Pack.........................................................................174 Figure 58 Photograph of a Tesla S Battery Pack ..........................................................................................175 Figure 59 Panasonic 18650 Cylindrical Battery Cells Used in a Tesla Model S and X ..................................176 Figure 60 Distribution of Cells in a Tesla Model 3 Battery Pack ..................................................................176 Figure 61 BMW i3 Battery Pack ...................................................................................................................177 Figure 62 Li-ion Battery Supply Chain..........................................................................................................181 Figure 63 Sources of Cobalt Globally (2017)................................................................................................182 Figure 64 Global Producers of Nickel for Battery Applications ...................................................................183 Figure 65 CARMA – EV Adoption Factors ....................................................................................................184 Figure 66 Number of Public and workplace Charging Points for EVs in the US (2008 to 2017)..................185 Figure 67 Battery Pack Manufacturing Cost 2010 to 2030) ($/kWh) ..........................................................186 Figure 68 EV Tax Incentives By State in the US...........................................................................................186 Figure 69 Number of EV Models Available to Consumers in North America, 2008-2017...........................189 Figure 70 Timescale for Adoption of New Technologies by US Households (1903-2016) ..........................192 KELLEHER RESEARCH STUDY ON REUSE AND RECYCLING OF BATTERIES EMPLOYED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES FINAL REPORT SEPTEMBER, 2019 PAGE 9PDF Image | Reuse and Recycling of Batteries Employed in Electric Vehicles
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