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Variety of EV Battery Chemistries and Formats: There is a wide range of chemistries and battery cell and pack designs currently in use.174 Moreover, the materials in each cell are not standardized and are constantly evolving; although batteries with higher nickel content may eventually predominate the market, even these will have unique formulations that have different relative proportions, with varying particle structures.175 The lack of standardization of EV battery types makes reliable recycling a challenge, since each could require a different recycling procedure and potentially even separate facilities.176 Ideally, direct recyclers prefer to run one chemistry at a time through their hydrometallurgical process for best product quality output and chemical use; this will not be possible until all EV battery chemistries are clearly labelled, which does not appear to be the case at this time; Lack of EV Battery Standard Structure and Design: Ideally, the recycling process could be simplified if all the packs and modules were similar, enabling construction of automated disassembly lines to separate the input stream into objects of a size suitable for further processing.171 Standardization would also facilitate sorting and possibly enable cell disassembly instead of size reduction.172 However, automakers have legitimate competitive reasons to resist standardization.173 In addition, experimenting with different battery types and designs helps drive economic and technical innovations in EV development, and is expected to be ongoing for the foreseeable future. Lack of Design for Recycling: Rajit Gadh, PhD, professor at UCLA’s Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science explains that “ the first generation of EV batteries were designed with energy density, power density, weight, performance, number of cycles, reliability and safety in mind, however, not enough thought was given to their reuse, recycling, demolishing or disassembly.”174 The way in which an EV battery is designed can limit the ability of valuable raw materials, like nickel, lithium and cobalt, to be recovered and recycled. Examples of design elements that can hinder recycling include permanent assembly methods, like spot-welding the battery pack instead of using nuts and bolts, or holding cells in place using a potting compound.175 Current recycling technologies may not be able to recover the lithium and cobalt in batteries manufactured with these methods without damaging the components inside.176 Gaines et al. (2018) notes in their article on ‘Key Issues for Li-ion Battery Recycling’ that actual practice has not yet produced easily recyclable batteries.177 171Gaines, L., Richa, K., & Spangenberger, J. (2018). “Key issues for Li-ion battery recycling.” MRS Energy & Sustainability, sci-hub.tw/10.1557/mre.2018.13 172 ibid. 173http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:t4knY1efHZ8J:www.dot.ca.gov/sustainability/docs/2018-03- 26_battery_disposal.pdf+&cd=11&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=ca&client=safari 5.doi:10.1557/mre.2018.13 174 Keller, M. 2018. “Recyclability of Electric Vehicle Batteries Scrutinized.” https://lamprecycling.veoliaes.com/newsletter/October2017/5 175 Gaines, L., Richa, K., & Spangenberger, J. (2018). “Key issues for Li-ion battery recycling.” MRS Energy & Sustainability, 5.doi:10.1557/mre.2018.13 176International Institute for Sustainable Development. March 2019. fe-cycle-is-more-important-than-the-battery- lifetions_ReLIEVeonment.org/sites/https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/sustainability-second-life-cobalt-lithium-recycling.pdf> 177 Gaines, L., Richa, K., & Spangenberger, J. (2018). “Key issues for Li-ion battery recycling.” MRS Energy & Sustainability, 5.doi:10.1557/mre.2018.13 KELLEHER RESEARCH STUDY ON REUSE AND RECYCLING OF BATTERIES EMPLOYED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES FINAL REPORT SEPTEMBER, 2019 PAGE 84PDF Image | Reuse and Recycling of Batteries Employed in Electric Vehicles
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