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regarding CO2 reductions by chemistry and battery type were: • For cylindrical NMC cells, an estimated 78% (53-115%) of the cathode material must be recovered to result in a net CO2eq emissions reduction; • For NCA cells, 88% (58-133%) of the cathode would need to be recovered to result in a net CO2eq emissions reduction; and • For pouch cells, 59% (49-74%) of NMC cathodes or 63% (48-87%) of NCA cathodes must be recovered to result in a net CO2eq emissions reduction. The study also found that since the hydrometallurgical recycling process offers median reductions in CO2eq emissions, the recovery rate of cathode material from a direct recycling process required to result in more CO2eq offsets is high (>40%). However, since pyrometallurgical recycling results in net increases in GHG emissions, the cathode yield rate from a direct cathode recycling process can be lower and still result in lower GHG emissions increases than pyrometallurgical recycling.204 A study published by Berg et al in 2019205 assessed the environmental impacts of in silico206 designed lithium metal batteries (LMBs) compared to existing li-ion battery designs in a vehicle perspective. The study found that LMBs based on NMC chemistry resulted in the lowest climate impact for both a Nissan Leaf and Tesla EV. However, it also found that the recycling climate gains are relatively small compared to the use and production phase impacts for all types of the batteries considered in the analysis (see Figure 46 and 47). Figure 46 Estimated Climate Impacts Through Production, Use and Recycling for Three Different Batteries for Nissan Leaf207 204 Ciez, R.E., & J.F. Whitacre. 2019. “Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries.” Nature Sustainability, 2, 148-159. doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0222-5 205 Berg, H., & Zackrisson, M. (2019). Perspectives on environmental and cost assessment of lithium metal negative electrodes in electric vehicle traction batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 415, 83–90.doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.01.047 (sci-hub.tw/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.01.047) 206 Refers to a theoretical modelled value rather than one measured in real world applications 207 Berg, H., & Zackrisson, M. (2019). Perspectives on environmental and cost assessment of lithium metal negative electrodes in electric vehicle traction batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 415, 83–90.doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.01.047 (sci-hub.tw/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.01.047) KELLEHER RESEARCH STUDY ON REUSE AND RECYCLING OF BATTERIES EMPLOYED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES FINAL REPORT SEPTEMBER, 2019 PAGE 98PDF Image | Reuse and Recycling of Batteries Employed in Electric Vehicles
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