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potential, ionizing radiation, and freshwater ecotoxicity. The environmental credits are particularly relevant to the impact categories of marine eutrophication (−27%), human toxicity (about – 20% for human toxicity no cancer effect and −40% for human toxicity cancer effect), particulate matter (−17%) and abiotic resource depletion (−16.4%). This outcome confirms the environmental benefits of recovering Li-ion battery materials, as reported in previous studies.” The Cuzensa et al. (2019) article210 also acknowledges that the environmental benefits of recycling could be increased further if the other cell components/materials, such as graphite, electrolyte and aluminum, were recovered (i.e., by designing battery cells for disassembly and making it easier to separate cell components). A 2014 study by Dunn et al211 examined the GHG and SOx reductions for different cathode materials recovered from pyrometallurgical, indirect physical, and direct physical recycling processes as compared to producing them from virgin materials. In the case of the commercial pyrometallurgical process, which the authors analyzed only for the case of LCO-containing batteries, the study found that GHG reductions for producing the cathode material could be between 60-75%. If recycled LCO were incorporated into EV batteries that would have used virgin LCO prepared hydrothermally, the cathode material contribution to overall battery GHG intensity would decline from 57% to 25% and overall battery GHG intensity would decline by 43%. The results also showed that the SOx intensity of recycled LCO is nearly 100% lower than from production of virgin LCO. As stated by the study’s authors: “this significant SOx reduction holds true even for the energy-intensive pyrometallurgical process because the SOx-intensive smelting step that occurs during recovery of virgin Co is completely avoided.” Another key finding of the study was that the direct recycling process has the potential to reduce GHG and SOx emissions from cathode material production by 81-98% and 72% to nearly 100%, respectively. These findings indicate that, particularly for cobalt- and nickel-containing cathode materials, recycled cathode materials are likely less GHG- and SOx-intensive than cathode materials produced from scratch.212 In the case of LMO cathode material, which is the least energy- and GHG-intensive to produce, the study found that using recycled cathode material from the intermediate and direct recycling processes could reduce overall battery GHG emissions by 2% and 16%, respectively. 210 Cusenza, M.A., Bobba, S., Ardente, F., Cellura, M., & F. Di Persio. (2019). “Energy and environmental assessment of a traction lithium-ion battery pack for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.” Journal of Cleaner Production, 215, 634-649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.056 211 Dunn, J.B. , Gaines, L., Kelly, J.C., James, C., and K.G. Gallagher. (2014). “The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling’s role in its reduction.” doi: 10.1039/c4ee03029j 212 Ibid. KELLEHER RESEARCH STUDY ON REUSE AND RECYCLING OF BATTERIES EMPLOYED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES FINAL REPORT SEPTEMBER, 2019 PAGE 100PDF Image | Reuse and Recycling of Batteries Employed in Electric Vehicles
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