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Figure 48 Estimated GHG and Sox Reductions for Cathode Materials Recovered from Li-ion Battery Recycling Processes Compared to Production from Virgin Materials213 A study published by Dunn et al in 2012214 calculated the air emissions generated when recovering LiMn2O4 , aluminum, and copper from li-ion batteries in three recycling processes (hydrometallurgical, intermediate physical, and direct physical recycling) and examined the effects of closed-loop recycling on environmental impacts of battery production. Figure 49, taken from the article, shows the corresponding reduction in GHG emissions when recycled cathode materials, aluminum, and copper are used in li-ion batteries. The results show that obtaining LiMn2O4 from the hydrometallurgical process yields negligible GHG emissions reductions in part because of the calcining step, which emits GHGs from the burning of PVDF and carbon. In a closed loop recycling scenario that would use LiMn2O4, copper, and aluminum recovered from the direct physical recycling process, GHG reductions from a scenario with no recycling are approximately 54%.215 The research in the study is now considered out of date as chemistries, technologies and other factors have changed considerably since it was published. 213 Dunn, J.B. , Gaines, L., Kelly, J.C., James, C., and K.G. Gallagher. (2014). “The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling’s role in its reduction.” doi: 10.1039/c4ee03029j 214 Dunn, J. B., Gaines, L., Sullivan, J., & Wang, M. Q. (2012). “Impact of Recycling on Cradle-to-Gate Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Automotive Lithium-Ion Batteries.” Environmental Science & Technology, 46(22), 12704–12710. doi:10.1021/es302420z 215 Ibid. KELLEHER RESEARCH STUDY ON REUSE AND RECYCLING OF BATTERIES EMPLOYED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES FINAL REPORT SEPTEMBER, 2019 PAGE 101PDF Image | Reuse and Recycling of Batteries Employed in Electric Vehicles
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