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Figure 49 Total Estimated Cradle-to-Gate GHG Emissions of an EV Battery Made from Virgin Materials with Recycled Cathode Materials, Recycled Aluminum and Recycled Active Material and Aluminum (2012)216 The US EPA and US DOE217carried out a LCA of li-ion batteries in BEV and PHEV applications to identify the process (including materials extraction, and processing, manufacturing, use, recycling and disposal) that had the largest impacts on public health and the environment. For the recycling stage LCA, three recycling technologies for li-ion batteries (hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and direct recovery processes) were assessed based on a best- case scenario, with life cycle inventory data primarily obtained from the relevant battery recyclers. The final data were the average of the three results; the individual impact of each process was not shown. The US EPA study found that recycling lowered the overall life cycle impacts, especially in the category of ozone depletion potential. These benefits came from the use of secondary materials instead of raw materials in the extraction and processing stage. The report also highlighted several opportunities to reduce the environmental impacts of EV batteries, among which recycling was identified as beneficial to lowering the environmental impact when battery manufacturers maximize the use of recycled materials in the manufacture of new battery materials, thus closing the loop of material flows.218 A report recently published by Element Energy219 identified the GHG impacts of different recycling processes on two types of batteries: LMO and a mix of 35% NMC, 35% NCA and 30% LFP. Table 18 summarizes the results. The data in the table are based on several literature sources and industry inputs used in a Swedish study. The table shows that all recycling processes except pyrometallurgical result in CO2 emissions savings. 216 Ibid. 217 US Environmental Protection Agency. April 24, 2013. “Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles.”PDF Image | Reuse and Recycling of Batteries Employed in Electric Vehicles
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