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Sustainability 2015, 7 15366 Zabek et al. optimized a heat-to-power conversion process by maximizing the net power output. The process employed a trans-critical ORC with R134a as the working fluid. The authors developed a positive heat exchange/pressure correlation for the net power output with reasonable cycle efficiencies of around 10% for moderate device sizes, and concluded that, in order to design a comprehensive and dynamic unit configuration, a flexible cycle layout with an adjustable working fluid mass flow is required [26]. Bracco et al. experimentally tested and numerically modeled under transient conditions a small ORC, for which the main components are the R245fa working fluid, a plate condenser, an inverter-driven diaphragm pump, an electric boiler and a scroll expander. The latter is a hermetic device, derived from a commercial HVAC compressor, which generates about 1.5 kW of electrical power. Performance parameters for the overall cycle and its components were investigated and it was found that the lab management system software was able to simulate systems in transient conditions [27]. Wang et al. proposed an ideal ORC model to analyze the influence of working fluid properties on the thermal efficiency. The optimal operation conditions and the exergy destructions for various heat resource temperatures were also evaluated utilizing pinch and exergy analyses. The authors demonstrated that the Jacob number and the ratio of evaporating temperature and condensing temperature have significant influences on the thermal efficiency of an ORC and that a low Jacob number indicates attractive performance for a given operation condition [28]. Yu et al. simulated an actual organic Rankine cycle bottoming system using R245fa as a working fluid for a diesel engine, and conclude that approximately 75% and 9.5% of the waste heat from exhaust gas and from jacket water, respectively, can be recovered [29]. Li et al. experimentally analyzed the effect of varying working fluid mass flow rate and regenerator on the efficiency of a regenerative ORC operating on R123, and find that the power output is 6 kW and the regenerative ORC efficiency is 8.0%, which is 1.8% higher than that of the basic ORC [30]. Maizza et al. thermodynamically optimized ORCs for power generation and CHP considering various average heat source profiles (waste heat recovery, thermal oil for cogeneration and geothermal) They develop optimization methods for subcritical and trans-critical, regenerative and non-regenerative cycles, and present an optimization model to predict the best cycle performance (subcritical or trans-critical) in terms of exergy efficiency, considering various working fluids [31]. Meinel et al. presented Aspen Plus (V7.3) simulations of a two-stage organic Rankine cycle with internal heat recovery for four working fluids, in a two-part study. First, the exhaust gas outlet was constrained to 130 °C to stay above the acid dew point; Second, the pinch point of the exhaust gas heat exchanger was set to 10 K. For wet and isentropic fluids, the thermodynamic efficiencies of the two-stage cycle exceeded the corresponding values of reference processes by up to 2.2%, while the recuperator design benefited from using dry fluids compared to the two-stage concept [32]. Mango et al. presented a second-law analysis for the use of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) to convert waste energy to power from low-grade heat sources. The working fluids under investigation are R134a, R113, R245ca, R245fa, R123, isobutene, and propane, with boiling points between 243 and 48 °C. Some of the results demonstrated that ORC using R113 showed the maximum efficiency among the evaluated organic fluids for temperatures <380 K, and isobutene showed the best efficiency [33]. Bu et al. investigated system efficiency on six working fluids, R123, R134a, R245fa, R600a (isobutene), R600 (butane) and R290, in order to using geothermal energy as a heat source. The calculated results show that R290 and R134a, R600a (isobutene) is the more suitable working fluid for ORC in terms of expander size parameter, system efficiency and system pressure [34].PDF Image | Selection of Optimum Working Fluid for Organic Rankine Cycles
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