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Energies 2017, 10, 413 9 of 26 at the price indicated in Figure 4. Considering that the ORC plant operates 7446 h/year during the three-year pay-back period, the revenue for the ORC company is calculated as the difference between the actualized income generated by selling the electricity produced to the grid and the initial investment cost. None of the analysed countries allow the ORC companies to obtain a revenue from the investment scheme as described in Case 2, when the power output of the ORC is below 200 kW (see Figure 5a–d). It can be concluded that the current scheme of incentives needs to be improved to push ORC companies to invest in the recovery of wasted heat for the production of energy to sell to the grid. For example, the revenue from selling the electricity to the grid could be augmented with respect to the current values, shown in Figure 4. Case 3 investigates the installation of ORC systems coupled to renewable energy sources. When an ORC system is used to exploit the energy produced from a renewable source, the end-user benefits from the FiTs. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the revenue for the ORC company as the difference between the income obtained in the first three years and the initial investment cost. As illustrated in Figure 5a–d, the installation of ORC systems for applications that make them eligible for FiTs results in the highest revenue for the ORC companies, among the options analysed. In Italy and Germany, where the cost of electricity is high (see Figure 4), the installation of ORC systems guarantees the company an income when the power output is above 5 kW. In the United Kingdom, it is convenient to install an ORC, under the incentive scheme of FiTs, if the power production of the plant is above 20 kW. Finally, in France, the option is not cost effective for a power production below 100 kW. 2.2. ORC Market Analysis Section 2.1 reported the relative advantage of investing in ORC technology depending on location and pay-back scheme. Section 2.2 reports the companies currently involved in the design and commercialization of ORC systems for the production of power in the small-scale range, i.e., below 100 kW. Table 2 shows a list of existing ORC companies in the small-scale range. It has to be noted that all companies to the authors’ knowledge have been included; however, it can be expected that this list may not be all-inclusive. To date, companies that develop ORC plants in the MW range, such as Turboden, Ormat and Enertime, have not been trying to expand their business towards the small-scale market. This constitutes an additional proof that scaling down this technology is not straight forward. Table 2 reveals that companies are trying to gain competitive advantage designing ad hoc expanders. In fact, the expander design together with the working fluid selection represent the main unsolved problems in this field. Most of the companies, active in the market, opted for a turbo expander. However, it can be noticed that volumetric expanders are preferred when the power output reaches values as low as 30 kW. Moreover, the temperature of the heat source varies over a wide range depending on which market sector companies are trying to reach. Generally, most of the low temperature heat sources (i.e., below 300 °C) refer to geothermal or solar applications and low temperature wasted heat (e.g., in the engine cooling). High temperature heat sources (i.e., above 300 °C) are typical of waste heat recovery from high-grade sources and biomass applications. Despite of the relatively large number of companies outlined in Table 2, most of them are still developing prototypes. The reason being that the specific cost depicted in Figure 1 represents a difficult target to reach. Scientists are putting much effort into the development of new methods to improve the performance of small-scale ORCs. The research in the ORC field is not recent. In 1964, Tabor and Bronicki [31] published a work in which they investigated suitable working fluids for small vapour turbines. In 1984, Angelino et al. [32] presented a review of the Italian activity in the research field of ORC. Sections 3 and 4 outline the methods proposed in the literature for the selection of the optimal working fluid and expander. The analysis that follows does not aim at being conclusive, nor at presenting original results. The purpose of Sections 3 and 4 is to provide the reader with the state of the art of the ORC technology in small-scale applications.PDF Image | Small Scale Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
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