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type and quantity of chemical additives used during drilling, production and well maintenance and stimulation activities. Solid wastes such as drill cuttings are typically managed through landfilling or on-site disposal in pits. Produced water has historically been managed as a waste via Class I and II underground injection control (UIC) disposal wells under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) or disposal in on-site evaporation or seepage pits. While this continues to be the predominant management approach for the vast majority of produced water in the United States, produced water is increasingly being recycled and reused within the oil and gas field for drilling and hydraulic fracturing activities. While opportunities exist to recycle/reuse produced water outside of the oilfield, this management approach is rare. Some produced water is currently used for irrigation of crops. Road spreading of produced water for dust and ice control is also occurring in some states. Off-site CWT facilities are also used to manage these wastewaters. In addition, some produced water is managed at publicly-owned treatment works (POTWs5). Representatives of state agencies that the EPA engaged for this study generally supported increasing opportunities for management of oil and gas wastewaters including discharge of oil and gas extraction and production wastewater. Reasons include providing additional flexibility for producers, opportunities to address water scarcity concerns and to provide additional water for agriculture. Representatives of some agencies raised concerns regarding the treatability of produced waters and the unknown human health and ecological risks that might occur. Such risk is primarily a function of the unknown chemistry of many produced waters. In addition, management of treatment residuals, particularly the salts and radioactive material that would be generated, were identified as concerns. Representatives of tribes generally expressed concern about increasing opportunities for discharge, however some tribal representatives supported discharge to address water scarcity and to allow for continued resource development on tribal lands. Section 1−Executive Summary Currently, discharge of oil and gas extraction wastewaters to surface waters is occurring in limited geographic areas of the country. Discharges for agriculture and wildlife propagation are occurring primarily in Wyoming; these produced waters generally receive limited treatment in most cases, consisting primarily of settling and/or skimming. Indirect discharge via POTWs is primarily occurring in Pennsylvania; these produced waters receive limited or no treatment prior to transfer to the POTW. Discharge via CWT facilities are occurring primarily in the Marcellus and Utica shale areas of Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia; these wastewaters receive varying levels of treatment, ranging from simple physical/chemical treatment to advanced treatment utilizing membranes or distillation. 5 The discharge of pollutants from unconventional oil and gas extraction activities to POTWs is prohibited (see 81 FR 41845). The rule is currently in effect for most facilities, although some are subject to a delayed compliance date of August 20, 2019 (see 81 FR 88126). Study of Oil and Gas Extraction Wastewater Management 2PDF Image | Study of Oil and Gas Extraction Wastewater
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